Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T02:18:59.308Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 2 - Practical Aspects of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2018

Leonardo F. Fontenelle
Affiliation:
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Murat Yücel
Affiliation:
Monash University, Victoria
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Lieb, R. Concepts and methods of epidemiology. In: Wright, JD, ed. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Volume 7. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2015:824831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bijl, RV, de Graaf, R, Hiripi, E, et al. The prevalence of treated and untreated mental disorders in five countries. Health Affairs. 2003;22(3):122133.Google Scholar
Karno, M, Golding, JM, Sorenson, SB, Burnam, MA. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(12):10941099.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1980.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed., revised. Washington, DC: APA; 1987.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1994.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision. Geneva: WHO; 1990.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Mendlowicz, MV, Versiani, M. The descriptive epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006;30(3):327337.Google Scholar
Somers, JM, Goldner, EM, Waraich, P, Hsu, L. Prevalence and incidence studies of anxiety disorders: a systematic review of the literature. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(2):100113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caraveo-Anduaga, JJ, Bermudez, EC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in Mexico City. Salud Mental. 2004;27(2):16.Google Scholar
de Bruijn, C, Beun, S, de Graaf, R, ten Have, M, Denys, D. Subthreshold symptoms and obsessive-compulsive disorder: evaluating the diagnostic threshold. Psychol Med. 2010;40(6):989997.Google Scholar
Ruscio, AM, Stein, DJ, Chiu, WT, Kessler, RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):5363.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, Jin, R, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593602.Google Scholar
Crino, R, Slade, T, Andrews, G. The changing prevalence and severity of obsessive-compulsive disorder criteria from DSM-III to DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(5):876882.Google Scholar
Jacobi, F, Hofler, M, Siegert, J, et al. Twelve-month prevalence, comorbidity and correlates of mental disorders in Germany: the Mental Health Module of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults (DEGS1-MH). Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2014;23(3):304319.Google Scholar
Adam, Y, Meinlschmidt, G, Gloster, AT, Lieb, R. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in the community: 12-month prevalence, comorbidity and impairment. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(3):339349.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Chiu, WT, Demler, O, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):617627.Google Scholar
Wittchen, HU, Jacobi, F, Rehm, J, et al. The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;21(9):655679.Google Scholar
Fullana, MA, Vilagut, G, Rojas-Farreras, S, et al. Obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions in the general population: results from an epidemiological study in six European countries. J Affect Disord. 2010;124(3):291299.Google Scholar
Angst, J, Gamma, A, Endrass, J, et al. Obsessive-compulsive severity spectrum in the community: prevalence, comorbidity, and course. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;254(3):156164.Google Scholar
Grabe, HJ, Meyer, C, Hapke, U, et al. Prevalence, quality of life and psychosocial function in obsessive-compulsive disorder and subclinical obsessive-compulsive disorder in northern Germany. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;250(5):262268.Google Scholar
Stein, MB, Forde, DR, Anderson, G, Walker, JR. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in the community: an epidemiologic survey with clinical reappraisal. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(8):11201126.Google Scholar
Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Jackson, KL, et al. Frequency of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(6):782791.Google Scholar
Weissman, MM, Bland, RC, Canino, GJ, et al. The cross national epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. The Cross National Collaborative Group. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55(Suppl):510.Google ScholarPubMed
Cilli, AS, Telcioglu, M, Askin, R, Kaya, N, Bodur, S, Kucur, R. Twelve-month prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in Konya, Turkey. Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45(5):367374.Google Scholar
Karno, M, Golding, JM, Sorenson, SB, Burnam, MA. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in 5 United-States communities. Arch Gen Psychiatr. 1988;45(12):10941099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, RC, Amminger, GP, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S, Alonso, J, Lee, S, Ustun, TB. Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature. Curr Opin Psychiatr. 2007;20(4):359364.Google Scholar
Mohammadi, MR, Ghanizadeh, A, Rahgozar, M, et al. Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in Iran. BMC Psychiatry. 2004;4:2.Google Scholar
Burke, KC, Burke, JD, Regier, DA, Rae, DS. Age at onset of selected mental-disorders in 5 community populations. Arch Gen Psychiatr. 1990;47(6):511518.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, CE, et al. A prospective population-based cohort study of the prevalence, incidence and impact of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):170178.Google Scholar
Torres, AR, Prince, MJ, Bebbington, PE, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: prevalence, comorbidity, impact, and help-seeking in the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey of 2000. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(11):19781985.Google Scholar
Subramaniam, M, Abdin, E, Vaingankar, JA, Chong, SA. Obsessive–compulsive disorder: prevalence, correlates, help-seeking and quality of life in a multiracial Asian population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(12):20352043.Google Scholar
Nestadt, G, Samuels, JF, Romanoski, AJ, Folstein, MF, McHugh, PR. Obsessions and compulsions in the community. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1994;89(4):219224.Google Scholar
Jacobi, F, Wittchen, HU, Holting, C, et al. Prevalence, co-morbidity and correlates of mental disorders in the general population: results from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey (GHS). Psychol Med. 2004;34(4):597611.Google Scholar
Torres, AR, Prince, MJ, Bebbington, PE, et al. Treatment seeking by individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder from the British psychiatric morbidity survey of 2000. Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58(7):977982.Google Scholar
Mayerovitch, JI, du Fort, GG, Kakuma, R, Bland, RC, Newman, SC, Pinard, G. Treatment seeking for obsessive-compulsive disorder: role of obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms and comorbid psychiatric diagnoses. Compr Psychiatry. 2003;44(2):162168.Google Scholar
Cullen, B, Samuels, JF, Pinto, A, et al. Demographic and clinical characteristics associated with treatment status in family members with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(3):218224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinto, A, Mancebo, MC, Eisen, JL, Pagano, ME, Rasmussen, SA. The Brown Longitudinal Obsessive Compulsive Study: clinical features and symptoms of the sample at intake. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(5):703711.Google Scholar
Wang, PS, Berglund, P, Olfson, M, Pincus, HA, Wells, KB, Kessler, RC. Failure and delay in initial treatment contact after first onset of mental disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):603613.Google Scholar
Douglass, HM, Moffitt, TE, Dar, R, McGee, R, Silva, P. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in a birth cohort of 18-year-olds: prevalence and predictors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(11):14241431.Google Scholar
Weissman, MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, et al. Cross-national epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectrums. 1998;3:69.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, Gale, T, Rossler, W, Angst, J. Lifetime comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and sub-threshold obsessive-compulsive symptomatology in the community: impact, prevalence, socio-demographic and clinical characteristics. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):188196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestadt, G, Bienvenu, OJ, Cai, G, Samuels, J, Eaton, WW. Incidence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186(7):401406.Google Scholar
Chen, YW, Dilsaver, SC. Comorbidity for obsessive-compulsive disorder in bipolar and unipolar disorders. Psychiatry Res. 1995;59(1–2):5764.Google Scholar
de Graaf, R, Bijl, RV, Spijker, J, Beekman, AT, Vollebergh, WA. Temporal sequencing of lifetime mood disorders in relation to comorbid anxiety and substance use disorders – findings from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2003;38(1):111.Google Scholar
Isensee, B, Wittchen, HU, Stein, MB, Hofler, M, Lieb, R. Smoking increases the risk of panic: findings from a prospective community study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(7):692700.Google Scholar
Rapoport, JL, Inoff-Germain, G, Weissman, MM, et al. Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder in the NIMH MECA study: parent versus child identification of cases. Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 2000;14(6):535548.Google Scholar
Hudson, JI, Hiripi, E, Pope, HG Jr., Kessler, RC. The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):348358.Google Scholar
Cuzen, NL, Stein, DJ, Lochner, C, Fineberg, NA. Unconscious habit systems in compulsive and impulsive disorders. Behav Brain Sci. 2014;37(2):141.Google Scholar
Torres, AR, Moran, P, Bebbington, P, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and personality disorder: evidence from the British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity 2000. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2006;41(11):862867.Google Scholar
Crum, RM, Anthony, JC. Cocaine use and other suspected risk factors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a prospective study with data from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1993;31:281295.Google Scholar
Peterson, BS, Pine, DS, Cohen, P, Brook, JS. Prospective, longitudinal study of tic, obsessive-compulsive, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders in an epidemiological sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(6):685695.Google Scholar
Grabe, HJ, Meyer, C, Hapke, U, et al. Lifetime-comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and subclinical obsessive-compulsive disorder in Northern Germany. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;251(3):130135.Google Scholar
Kraemer, HC, Kazdin, AE, Offord, DR, Kessler, RC, Jensen, PS, Kupfer, DJ. Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(4):337343.Google Scholar
Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Waller, JL, et al. Incidence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(7):898906.Google Scholar
Grisham, JR, Fullana, MA, Mataix-Cols, D, Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A, Poulton, R. Risk factors prospectively associated with adult obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Med. 2011;41(12):24952506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandner, G, Perez-Vigil, A, Larsson, H, Mataix-Cols, D. Systematic review of environmental risk factors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a proposed roadmap from association to causation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;65:3662.Google Scholar
Russell, EJ, Fawcett, JM, Mazmanian, D. Risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder in pregnant and postpartum women: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(4):377385.Google Scholar
Goodwin, RD, Lieb, R, Hoefler, M, et al. Panic attack as a risk factor for severe psychopathology. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:22072214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieb, R, Miche, M, Gloster, AT, Beesdo-Baum, K, Meyer, AH, Wittchen HU. Impact of specific phobia on the risk of onset of mental disorders: a 10-year prospective-longitudinal community study of adolescents and young adults. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(7):667675.Google Scholar
Wolitzky-Taylor, K, Bobova, L, Zinbarg, RE, Mineka, S, Craske, MG. Longitudinal investigation of the impact of anxiety and mood disorders in adolescence on subsequent substance use disorder onset and vice versa. Addict Behav. 2012;37(8):982985.Google Scholar
Rossler, W, Hengartner, MP, Ajdacic-Gross, V, Haker, H, Gamma, A, Angst, J. Sub-clinical psychosis symptoms in young adults are risk factors for subsequent common mental disorders. Schizophr Res. 2011;131(1–3):1823.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders. DSM-5 Factsheet. Washington, DC: APA; 2013. Available from: www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/educational-resources/dsm-5-fact-sheets (accessed July 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Cederlof, M, Lichtenstein, P, Larsson, H, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, psychosis, and bipolarity: a longitudinal cohort and multigenerational family study. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41(5):10761083.Google Scholar
Meier, SM, Petersen, L, Pedersen, MG, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a risk factor for schizophrenia: a nationwide study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(11):12151221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckner, JD, Silgado, J, Lewinsohn, PM. Delineation of differential temporal relations between specific eating and anxiety disorders. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44(12):781787.Google Scholar
Cederlof, M, Thornton, LM, Baker, J, et al. Etiological overlap between obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia nervosa: a longitudinal cohort, multigenerational family and twin study. World Psychiatry. 2015;14(3):333338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, SM, Bulik, CM, Thornton, LM, Mattheisen, M, Mortensen, PB, Petersen, L. Diagnosed anxiety disorders and the risk of subsequent anorexia nervosa: a Danish population register study. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2015;23(6):524530.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Ormel, J, Petukhova, M, et al. Development of lifetime comorbidity in the World Health Organization world mental health surveys. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(1):90100.Google Scholar
Goodwin, RD. Anxiety disorders and the onset of depression among adults in the community. Psychol Med. 2002;32(6):11211124.Google Scholar
Meier, SM, Petersen, L, Mattheisen, M, Mors, O, Mortensen, PB, Laursen, TM. Secondary depression in severe anxiety disorders: a population-based cohort study in Denmark. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(6):515523.Google Scholar
Brown, TA, Barlow, DH. A proposal for a dimensional classification system based on the shared features of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: implications for assessment and treatment. Psychol Assess. 2009;21(3):256271.Google Scholar
Offord, DR, Kraemer, HC. Risk factors and prevention. Evid Based Ment Health. 2000;3(3):7071.Google Scholar
Overbeek, G, ten Have, M, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R. Parental lack of care and overprotection. Longitudinal associations with DSM-III-R disorders. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2007;42(2):8793.Google Scholar
Brander, G, Perez-Vigil, A, Larsson, H, Mataix-Cols, D. Systematic review of environmental risk factors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a proposed roadmap from association to causation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;65:3662.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, P, Bruckl, T, Lieb, R, et al. The interplay of familial depression liability and adverse events in predicting the first onset of depression during a 10-year follow-up. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(4):406414.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, P, Bruckl, T, Nocon, A, et al. Interaction of FKBP5 gene variants and adverse life events in predicting depression onset: results from a 10-year prospective community study. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168(10):11071116.Google Scholar
Asselmann, E, Wittchen, HU, Lieb, R, Perkonigg, A, Beesdo-Baum, K. Incident mental disorders in the aftermath of traumatic events: a prospective-longitudinal community study. J Affect Disord. 2017;227:8289.Google Scholar
Goodwin, RD, Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ. Childhood abuse and familial violence and the risk of panic attacks and panic disorder in young adulthood. Psychol Med. 2005;35(6):881890.Google Scholar
von Sydow, K, Lieb, R, Pfister, H, Hofler, M, Wittchen, HU. What predicts incident use of cannabis and progression to abuse and dependence? A 4-year prospective examination of risk factors in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;68(1):4964.Google Scholar
Breslau, N, Davis, GC, Schultz, LR. Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(3):289294.Google Scholar
Oldehinkel, AJ, Hartman, CA, Van Oort, FV, Nederhof, E. Emotion recognition specialization and context-dependent risk of anxiety and depression in adolescents. Brain Behav. 2015;5(2):e00299.Google Scholar
Teo, AR, Choi, H, Andrea, SB, et al. Does mode of contact with different types of social relationships predict depression in older adults? evidence from a nationally representative survey. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63(10):20142022.Google Scholar
Chou, KL, Liang, K, Sareen, J. The association between social isolation and DSM-IV mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders: wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(11):14681476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martini, J, Petzoldt, J, Einsle, F, Beesdo-Baum, K, Hofler, M, Wittchen, HU. Risk factors and course patterns of anxiety and depressive disorders during pregnancy and after delivery: a prospective-longitudinal study. J Affect Disord. 2015;175:385395.Google Scholar
Goodman, JH, Watson, GR, Stubbs, B. Anxiety disorders in postpartum women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2016;203:292331.Google Scholar
Timpano, KR, Abramowitz, JS, Mahaffey, BL, Mitchell, MA, Schmidt, NB. Efficacy of a prevention program for postpartum obsessive-compulsive symptoms. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(11):15111517.Google Scholar

References

North, C, Yutzy, S. Goodwin and Guze’s Psychiatric Diagnosis, 6th ed. Oxford University Press; 2010.Google Scholar
Leme, Lopes J. O diagnóstico psiquiátrico. Rio de Janeiro-RJ: Editora Cultura Médica; 1980.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
de Miranda-Sá, Júnior LS. Compêndio de psicopatologia e semiologia psiquiátrica. ArtMed; 2000.Google Scholar
Schwartz, MA, Wiggins, OP. Typifications: the first step for clinical diagnosis in psychiatry. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1987;175(2):6577.Google Scholar
Jansson, L, Nordgaard, J. The psychiatric interview: theoretical aspects. In: Jansson, L, Nordgaard, J, eds. The Psychiatric Interview for Differential Diagnosis. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016:1726.Google Scholar
Jaspers, K. General Psychopathology. University of Chicago Press; 1963.Google Scholar
Robins, E, Guze, SB. Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1970;126(7):983987.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Lins-Martins, NM, Melca, IA, et al. Exaggerating, mislabeling or simulating obsessive-compulsive symptoms: case reports of patients claiming to have obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55(5):11881194.Google Scholar
Aboraya, A, France, C, Young, J, Curci, K, Lepage, J. The validity of psychiatric diagnosis revisited: the clinician’s guide to improve the validity of psychiatric diagnosis. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2005;2(9):4855.Google Scholar
Dorfan, NM, Woody, SR. Assessing OCD symptoms and severity. In: Steketee, G, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Obsessive Compulsive and Spectrum Disorders. Oxford University Press; 2011:253274.Google Scholar
Berrios, GE. Trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo y enfermedad neurológica: estado actual de la cuestión. In: Ruiloba, JV, Berrios, GE, eds. Estados obsesivos. 3a. edición ed. Barcelona: Masson; 2006:487519.Google Scholar
Sheehan, DV, Lecrubier, Y, Sheehan, KH, et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(Suppl 20):2233.Google ScholarPubMed
de Haan, S, Rietveld, E, Denys, D. On the nature of obsessions and compulsions. Vol 29. Basel: Karger; 2013.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III). 3rd ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1980.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R). 3rd revised ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1987.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: APA; 2000.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: WHO; 1992.Google Scholar
Ferrao, YA, Shavitt, RG, Prado, H, et al. Sensory phenomena associated with repetitive behaviors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an exploratory study of 1001 patients. Psychiatry Res. 2012;197(3):253258.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Denys, D, Simpson, HB, et al. Obsessive–compulsive disorder: a review of the diagnostic criteria and possible subtypes and dimensional specifiers for DSM-V. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27(6):507527.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Reddy, YCJ. Obsessive-compulsive disorder for ICD-11: proposed changes to the diagnostic guidelines and specifiers. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria. 2014;36:313.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (ICD-11 MMS) 2018 version. Available from: https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en (accessed July 9, 2018).Google Scholar
Marras, A, Fineberg, N, Pallanti, S. Obsessive compulsive and related disorders: comparing DSM-5 and ICD-11. CNS Spectr. 2016;21(4):324333.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: APA; 1994.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual: Mental Disorders Washington, DC: APA; 1952.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Assoociation. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-II). 2nd. ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1968.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF. New neuropsychological data might help build a model of poor insight in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an editorial comment to Kashyap H, Kumar K, Kandavel T, Janardhan Reddy YC. “Neuropsychological correlates of insight in obsessive-compulsive disorder” (1). Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012;126(2):8384.Google Scholar
Lewis, A. Problems of obsessional illness: section of psychiatry. Proc R Soc Med. 1936;29(4):325336.Google Scholar
WHO. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1993.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, R, Freeston, MH, Rheaume, J, et al. Strategies used with intrusive thoughts: a comparison of OCD patients with anxious and community controls. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000;109(2):179187.Google Scholar
Steinberg, H, Carius, D, Fontenelle, LF. Kraepelin’s views on obsessive neurosis: a comparison with DSM-5 criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Rev Brasil Psiquiatr. 2017;39:355364.Google Scholar
Freud, S, Strachey, J, Freud, A. Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. London: Vintage; 2001.Google Scholar
Pietrefesa, AS, Coles, ME. Moving beyond an exclusive focus on harm avoidance in obsessive compulsive disorder: considering the role of incompleteness. Behav Ther. 2008;39(3):224231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Einstein, DA, Menzies, RG. Magical thinking in obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder and the general community. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2006;34(3):351357.Google Scholar
Ferreira, GM, Yücel, M, Dawson, A, Lorenzetti, V, Fontenelle, LF. Investigating the role of anticipatory reward and habit strength in obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2017;22(3):295304.Google Scholar
Schneider, K. Clinical Psychopathology. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1959.Google Scholar
Berrios, GE. The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology Since the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press; 1996.Google Scholar
Berrios, GE. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: its conceptual history in France during the 19th century. Compr Psychiatry. 1989;30(4):283295.Google Scholar
APA. DSM History. 2017. Available from: www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/history-of-the-dsm (accessed March 17, 2017).Google Scholar
First, M, Caban, DK, Lewis-Fernández, R. Development of the nosology of anxiety disorders. In: Simpson, HB, Neria, Y, Lewis-Fernández, R, Schneier, F, eds. Anxiety Disorders: Theory, Research and Clinical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press; 2010:2039.Google Scholar
Grados, MA. The genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome: an epidemiological and pathway-based approach for gene discovery. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(8):810819.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Whitney, KA. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: prevalence, correlates and treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(1):99107.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Kozak, MJ, Goodman, WK, Hollander, E, Jenike, MA, Rasmussen, SA. DSM-IV field trial: obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(1):9096.Google Scholar
Williams, MT, Farris, SG, Turkheimer, E, et al. Myth of the pure obsessional type in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(6):495500.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Pocket Guide to ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: With Glossary and Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1994.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Mendlowicz, MV, Marques, C, Versiani, M. Early- and late-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder in adult patients: an exploratory clinical and therapeutic study. J Psychiatr Res. 2003;37(2):127133.Google Scholar
Kichuk, SA, Torres, AR, Fontenelle, LF, et al. Symptom dimensions are associated with age of onset and clinical course of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;44:233239.Google Scholar
Quarantini, LC, Torres, AR, Sampaio, AS, et al. Comorbid major depression in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Compr Psychiatry. 2011;52(4):386393.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Hasler, G. The analytical epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: risk factors and correlates. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008;32(1):115.Google Scholar
Torres, AR, Moran, P, Bebbington, P, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and personality disorder: evidence from the British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity 2000. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2006;41(11):862867.Google Scholar
Melca, IA, Yücel, M, Mendlowicz, MV, de Oliveira-Souza, R, Fontenelle, LF. The correlates of obsessive-compulsive, schizotypal, and borderline personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Anxiety Disord. 2015 ;33 :1524.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Green, C, Kichuk, SA, et al. Long-term outcome in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(8):716722.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. ICD-11 is here! Available from: www.who.int/classifications/icd/en (accessed July 9, 2018).Google Scholar
Singer, HS, Gilbert, DL, Wolf, DS, Mink, JW, Kurlan, R. Moving from PANDAS to CANS. J Pediatr. 2012;160(5):725731.Google Scholar
Spitzer, M, Sigmund, D. The phenomenology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int Rev Psychiatry. 1997;9(1):714.Google Scholar
Poyurovsky, M. Schizo-Obsessive Disorder. Cambridge University Press; 2013.Google Scholar
Veale, D. Over-valued ideas: a conceptual analysis. Behav Res Ther. 2002;40(4):383400.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF. New neuropsychological data might help build a model of poor insight in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012;126(2):8384.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Stein, DJ. Introduction and major changes for the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders in DSM-5. In: Phillips, KA, Stein, DJ, eds. Handbook on Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2015:124.Google Scholar
Steinberg, H, Carius, D, Fontenelle, LF. Kraepelin’s views on obsessive neurosis: a comparison with DSM-5 criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2017;39:355364.Google Scholar
Pitman, RK. Pierre Janet on obsessive-compulsive disorder (1903). Review and commentary. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44(3):226232.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Kogan, CS, Atmaca, M, et al. The classification of obsessive–compulsive and related disorders in the ICD-11. J Affect Disord. 2016;190:663674.Google Scholar
Konstantakopoulos, G, Tchanturia, K, Surguladze, SA, David, AS. Insight in eating disorders: clinical and cognitive correlates. Psychol Med. 2011;41(9):19511961.Google Scholar
Vigne, P, de Menezes, GB, Harrison, BJ, Fontenelle, LF. A study of poor insight in social anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2014;219(3):556561.Google Scholar
Clarke, RA, Lee, S, Eapen, V. Pathogenetic model for Tourette syndrome delineates overlap with related neurodevelopmental disorders including Autism. Transl Psychiatry. 2012;2:e158.Google Scholar
Biomarkers Definitions Working Group. Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints: preferred definitions and conceptual framework. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001;69(3):8995.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Braun, A, Simeon, D. Should OCD leave the anxiety disorders in DSM-V? The case for obsessive compulsive-related disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(4):317329.Google Scholar
Frydman, I, de Salles Andrade, JB, Vigne, P, Fontenelle, LF. Can neuroimaging provide reliable biomarkers for obsessive-compulsive disorder? A narrative review. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(10):90.Google Scholar
McGrath, LM, Yu, D, Marshall, C, et al. Copy number variation in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome: a cross-disorder study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53(8):910919.Google Scholar
Gazzellone, MJ, Zarrei, M, Burton, CL, et al. Uncovering obsessive-compulsive disorder risk genes in a pediatric cohort by high-resolution analysis of copy number variation. J Neurodev Disord. 2016;8(1):36.Google Scholar

References

Strauss, JS, Hafez, H, Lieberman, P, Harding, CM. The course of psychiatric disorder, III: longitudinal principles. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142:289296.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Mendlowicz, MV, Versiani, M. The descriptive epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006;30:327337.Google Scholar
Gururaj, G, Varghese, M, Benegal, V, et al. National Mental Health Survey of India, 2015–16: Summary Report. Bengaluru: National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences; 2016.Google Scholar
Jaisoorya, TS, Reddy, YCJ, Nair, BS, et al. Prevalence and correlates of obsessive-compulsive disorder and subthreshold obsessive-compulsive disorder among college students in Kerala, India. Indian J Psychiatry. 2017;59:5662.Google Scholar
Eaton, WW, Martins, SS, Nestadt, G, et al. The burden of mental disorders. Epidemiol Rev. 2008;30:114.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Benatti, B, Oldani, L, Spagnolin, G, Altamura, AC. Differences in duration of untreated illness, duration, and severity of illness among clinical phenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2015;20:474478.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:10061011.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. II. Validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:10121016.Google Scholar
Farris, SG, McLean, CP, Van Meter, PE, Simpson, HB, Foa, EB. Treatment response, symptom remission, and wellness in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:685690.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Fernandez de la Cruz, L, Nordsletten, AE, et al. Towards an international expert consensus for defining treatment response, remission, recovery and relapse in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World Psychiatry. 2016;15:8081.Google Scholar
Keller, MB, Lavori, PW, Friedman, B, et al. The Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation. A comprehensive method for assessing outcome in prospective longitudinal studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:540548.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Sibrava, NJ, Boisseau, CL, et al. Five-year course of obsessive-compulsive disorder: predictors of remission and relapse. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:233239.Google Scholar
Goodwin, DW, Guze, SB, Robins, E. Follow-up studies in obsessional neurosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1969;20:182187.Google Scholar
Skoog, G, Skoog, I. A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:121127.Google Scholar
Sharma, E, Thennarasu, K, Reddy, YC. Long-term outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75:10191027.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Goodman, WK, Keller, MB, et al. Patterns of remission and relapse in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 2-year prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:346351.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Benatti, B, Buoli, M, et al. The influence of age at onset and duration of illness on long-term outcome in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a report from the International College of Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum Disorders (ICOCS). Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23:865871.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Benatti, B, Hollander, E, et al. Childhood, adolescent and adult age at onset and related clinical correlates in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a report from the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders (ICOCS). Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2016;20:210217.Google Scholar
Burke, KC, Burke, JD, Jr, Regier, DA, Rae, DS. Age at onset of selected mental disorders in five community populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:511518.Google Scholar
Angst, J, Gamma, A, Endrass, J, et al. Obsessive-compulsive severity spectrum in the community: prevalence, comorbidity, and course. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;254:156164.Google Scholar
Delorme, R, Golmard, JL, Chabane, N, et al. Admixture analysis of age at onset in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Med. 2005;35:237243.Google Scholar
De Luca, V, Gershenzon, V, Burroughs, E, Javaid, N, Richter, MA. Age at onset in Canadian OCD patients: mixture analysis and systematic comparison with other studies. J Affect Disord. 2011;133:300304.Google Scholar
Frydman, I, do Brasil, PE, Torres, AR, et al. Late-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder: risk factors and correlates. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;49:6874.Google Scholar
Sharma, E, Shyam Sundar, A, Thennarasu, K, Reddy, YCJ. Is late-onset OCD a distinct phenotype? Findings from a comparative analysis of age-at-onset groups. CNS Spectrums. 2015;20:508514.Google Scholar
Chabane, N, Delorme, R, Millet, B, et al. Early-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder: a subgroup with a specific clinical and familial pattern? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005;46:881887.Google Scholar
Arumugham, SS, Cherian, AV, Baruah, U, et al. Comparison of clinical characteristics of familial and sporadic obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55:15201525.Google Scholar
de Mathis, MA, Diniz, JB, Hounie, AG, et al. Trajectory in obsessive-compulsive disorder comorbidities. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23:594601.Google Scholar
Cavallini, MC, Albertazzi, M, Bianchi, L, Bellodi, L. Anticipation of age at onset of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2002;111:19.Google Scholar
Real, E, Labad, J, Alonso, P, et al. Stressful life events at onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder are associated with a distinct clinical pattern. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28:367376.Google Scholar
Rosso, G, Albert, U, Asinari, GF, Bogetto, F, Maina, G. Stressful life events and obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical features and symptom dimensions. Psychiatry Res. 2012;197:259264.Google Scholar
Real, E, Subira, M, Alonso, P, et al. Brain structural correlates of obsessive-compulsive disorder with and without preceding stressful life events. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2016;17:366377.Google Scholar
Poyraz, CA, Turan, S, Saglam, NG, et al. Factors associated with the duration of untreated illness among patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2015;58:8893.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Buoli, M, Hollander, E, Altamura, AC. Duration of untreated illness as a predictor of treatment response and remission in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010;11:5965.Google Scholar
Reddy, YC, D’Souza, SM, Shetti, C, et al. An 11- to 13-year follow-up of 75 subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:744749.Google Scholar
Math, SB, Thoduguli, J, Janardhan Reddy, YC, et al. A 5-year course of predominantly obsessive vs. mixed subtypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Indian J Psychiatry. 2007;49:250255.Google Scholar
Ravizza, L, Maina, G, Bogetto, F. Episodic and chronic obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 1997;6:154158.Google Scholar
Thomsen, PH. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: predictors in childhood for long-term phenomenological course. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1995;92:255259.Google Scholar
Tukel, R, Oflaz, SB, Ozyildirim, I, et al. Comparison of clinical characteristics in episodic and chronic obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2007;24:251255.Google Scholar
Zutshi, A, Kamath, P, Reddy, YC. Bipolar and nonbipolar obsessive-compulsive disorder: a clinical exploration. Compr Psychiatry. 2007;48:245251.Google Scholar
Leonard, HL, Swedo, SE. Paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2001;4:191198.Google Scholar
Amerio, A, Odone, A, Liapis, CC, Ghaemi, SN. Diagnostic validity of comorbid bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2014;129:343358.Google Scholar
Cottraux, J, Mollard, E, Bouvard, M, Marks, I. Exposure therapy, fluvoxamine, or combination treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder: one-year followup. Psychiatry Res. 1993;49:6375.Google Scholar
Mundo, E, Erzegovesi, S, Bellodi, L. Follow-up of obsessive-compulsive patients treated with proserotonergic agents. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995;15:288289.Google Scholar
Orloff, LM, Battle, MA, Baer, L, et al. Long-term follow-up of 85 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:441442.Google Scholar
Zitterl, W, Demal, U, Aigner, M, et al. Naturalistic course of obsessive compulsive disorder and comorbid depression. Longitudinal results of a prospective follow-up study of 74 actively treated patients. Psychopathology. 2000;33:7580.Google Scholar
Alonso, P, Menchon, JM, Pifarre, J, et al. Long-term follow-up and predictors of clinical outcome in obsessive-compulsive patients treated with serotonin reuptake inhibitors and behavioral therapy. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:535540.Google Scholar
Biondi, M, Picardi, A. Increased maintenance of obsessive-compulsive disorder remission after integrated serotonergic treatment and cognitive psychotherapy compared with medication alone. Psychother Psychosom. 2005;74:123128.Google Scholar
Hembree, EA, Riggs, DS, Kozak, MJ, Franklin, ME, Foa, EB. Long-term efficacy of exposure and ritual prevention therapy and serotonergic medications for obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2003;8:363371, 381.Google Scholar
Rufer, M, Hand, I, Alsleben, H, et al. Long-term course and outcome of obsessive-compulsive patients after cognitive-behavioral therapy in combination with either fluvoxamine or placebo: a 7-year follow-up of a randomized double-blind trial. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2005;255:121128.Google Scholar
Catapano, F, Perris, F, Masella, M, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 3-year prospective follow-up study of patients treated with serotonin reuptake inhibitors OCD follow-up study. J Psychiatr Res. 2006;40:502510.Google Scholar
Olsen, T, Mais, AH, Bilet, T, Martinsen, EW. Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: personal follow-up of a 10-year material from an outpatient county clinic. Nord J Psychiatry. 2008;62:3945.Google Scholar
van Oppen, P, van Balkom, AJ, de Haan, E, van Dyck, R. Cognitive therapy and exposure in vivo alone and in combination with fluvoxamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 5-year follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:14151422.Google Scholar
Anand, N, Sudhir, PM, Math, SB, Thennarasu, K, Janardhan Reddy, YC. Cognitive behavior therapy in medication non-responders with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a prospective 1-year follow-up study. J Anxiety Disord. 2011;25:939945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anholt, GE, Aderka, IM, van Balkom, AJ, et al. The impact of depression on the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: results from a 5-year follow-up. J Affect Disord. 2011;135:201207.Google Scholar
Braga, DT, Manfro, GG, Niederauer, K, Cordioli, AV. Full remission and relapse of obsessive-compulsive symptoms after cognitive-behavioral group therapy: a two-year follow-up. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2010;32:164168.Google Scholar
Cabedo, E, Belloch, A, Carrio, C, et al. Group versus individual cognitive treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder: changes in severity at post-treatment and one-year follow-up. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2010;38:227232.Google Scholar
Marcks, BA, Weisberg, RB, Dyck, I, Keller, MB. Longitudinal course of obsessive-compulsive disorder in patients with anxiety disorders: a 15-year prospective follow-up study. Compr Psychiatry. 2011;52:670677.Google Scholar
Reddy, YC, Alur, AM, Manjunath, S, Kandavel, T, Math, SB. Long-term follow-up study of patients with serotonin reuptake inhibitor-nonresponsive obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30:267272.Google Scholar
Whittal, ML, Robichaud, M, Thordarson, DS, McLean, PD. Group and individual treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder using cognitive therapy and exposure plus response prevention: a 2-year follow-up of two randomized trials. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76:10031014.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Green, C, Kichuk, SA, et al. Long-term outcome in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30:716722.Google Scholar
Cherian, AV, Math, SB, Kandavel, T, Reddy, YC. A 5-year prospective follow-up study of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder treated with serotonin reuptake inhibitors. J Affect Disord. 2014;152–154:387394.Google Scholar
Cherian, AV, Pandian, D, Bada Math, S, Kandavel, T, Janardhan Reddy, YC. Family accommodation of obsessional symptoms and naturalistic outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2014;215:372378.Google Scholar
Jakubovski, E, Diniz, JB, Valerio, C, et al. Clinical predictors of long-term outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30:763772.Google Scholar
Pallanti, S, Hollander, E, Bienstock, C, et al. Treatment non-response in OCD: methodological issues and operational definitions. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;5:181191.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, et al. Remission of obsessive-compulsive disorders and syndromes; evidence from a prospective community cohort study over 30 years. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17:179187.Google Scholar
Steketee, G, Eisen, J, Dyck, I, Warshaw, M, Rasmussen, S. Predictors of course in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1999;89:229238.Google Scholar
Ravi Kishore, V, Samar, R, Janardhan Reddy, YC, Chandrasekhar, CR, Thennarasu, K. Clinical characteristics and treatment response in poor and good insight obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 2004;19:202208.Google Scholar
Shetti, CN, Reddy, YC, Kandavel, T, et al. Clinical predictors of drug nonresponse in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:15171523.Google Scholar
Kichuk, SA, Torres, AR, Fontenelle, LF, et al. Symptom dimensions are associated with age of onset and clinical course of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;44:233239.Google Scholar
McDougle, CJ, Epperson, CN, Pelton, GH, Wasylink, S, Price, LH. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone addition in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:794801.Google Scholar
Baer, L, Jenike, MA. Personality disorders in obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1992;15:803812.Google Scholar
Huang, LC, Hwang, TJ, Huang, GH, Hwu, HG. Outcome of severe obsessive-compulsive disorder with schizotypal features: a pilot study. J Formos Med Assoc. 2011;110:8592.Google Scholar
Cavedini, P, Erzegovesi, S, Ronchi, P, Bellodi, L. Predictive value of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder in antiobsessional pharmacological treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1997;7:4549.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Hackett, E, Rubin, A, Wolkow, R, Robinson, D. Efficacy of sertraline in the long-term treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:8895.Google Scholar
Romano, S, Goodman, W, Tamura, R, Gonzales, J. Long-term treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder after an acute response: a comparison of fluoxetine versus placebo. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:4652.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Mancebo, MC, Weinhandl, E, et al. Longitudinal course of pharmacotherapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;28:200205.Google Scholar
Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Jackson, KL, et al. Frequency of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33:782791.Google Scholar
Narrow, WE, Rae, DS, Robins, LN, Regier, DA. Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States: using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys’ estimates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:115123.Google Scholar
Stewart, SE, Geller, DA, Jenike, M, et al. Long-term outcome of pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis and qualitative review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2004;110:413.Google Scholar
Micali, N, Heyman, I, Perez, M, et al. Long-term outcomes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: follow-up of 142 children and adolescents. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;197:128134.Google Scholar
Mancebo, MC, Boisseau, CL, Garnaat, SL, et al. Long-term course of pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: 3 years of prospective follow-up. Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55:14981504.Google Scholar
Jenike, MA. Geriatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1991;4:3439.Google Scholar
Philpot, MP, Banerjee, S. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in the elderly. Behav Neurol. 1998;11:117121.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Grant, JE, Siniscalchi, JM, Stout, R, Price, LH. A retrospective follow-up study of body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2005;46:315321.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Pagano, ME, Menard, W, Fay, C, Stout, RL. Predictors of remission from body dysmorphic disorder: a prospective study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005;193:564567.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Menard, W, Quinn, E, Didie, ER, Stout, RL. A 4-year prospective observational follow-up study of course and predictors of course in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychol Med. 2013;43:11091117.Google Scholar
Bjornsson, AS, Dyck, I, Moitra, E, et al. The clinical course of body dysmorphic disorder in the Harvard/Brown Anxiety Research Project (HARP). J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011;199:5557.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Meunier, SA, Frost, RO, Steketee, G. Course of compulsive hoarding and its relationship to life events. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:829838.Google Scholar
Ayers, CR, Saxena, S, Golshan, S, Wetherell, JL. Age at onset and clinical features of late life compulsive hoarding. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;25:142149.Google Scholar
Grisham, JR, Frost, RO, Steketee, G, Kim, HJ, Hood, S. Age of onset of compulsive hoarding. J Anxiety Disord. 2006;20:675686.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Bartley, CA, Zipperer, L, et al. Meta-analysis: hoarding symptoms associated with poor treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19:10251030.Google Scholar
Muroff, J, Steketee, G, Frost, RO, Tolin, DF. Cognitive behavior therapy for hoarding disorder: follow-up findings and predictors of outcome. Depress Anxiety 2014;31:964971.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Stein, DJ. Body-focused repetitive behavior disorders in ICD-11. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2014;36(Suppl 1):5964.Google Scholar
Sah, DE, Koo, J, Price, VH. Trichotillomania. Dermatol Ther. 2008;21:1321.Google Scholar
Cohen, LJ, Stein, DJ, Simeon, D, et al. Clinical profile, comorbidity, and treatment history in 123 hair pullers: a survey study. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56:319326.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH. Trichotillomania across the life span. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:879883.Google Scholar
Bruce, TO, Barwick, LW, Wright, HH. Diagnosis and management of trichotillomania in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs. 2005;7:365376.Google Scholar
Flessner, CA, Lochner, C, Stein, DJ, et al. Age of onset of trichotillomania symptoms: investigating clinical correlates. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010;198:896900.Google Scholar
Christenson, GA, Mackenzie, TB, Mitchell, JE. Characteristics of 60 adult chronic hair pullers. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:365370.Google Scholar
Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW, Grant, JE. Quality of life and clinical severity in pathological skin picking and trichotillomania. J Anxiety Disord. 2010;24:823829.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Chamberlain, SR, et al. Skin picking disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:11431149.Google Scholar
Lenroot, RK, Giedd, JN. The changing impact of genes and environment on brain development during childhood and adolescence: initial findings from a neuroimaging study of pediatric twins. Dev Psychopathol. 2008;20:11611175.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Kogan, CS, Atmaca, M, et al. The classification of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders in the ICD-11. J Affect Disord. 2016;190:663674.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Reddy, YC. Obsessive-compulsive disorder for ICD-11: proposed changes to the diagnostic guidelines and specifiers. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2014;36(Suppl 1):313.Google Scholar
Kreyenbuhl, J, Buchanan, RW, Dickerson, FB, Dixon, LB, Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team. The Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT): updated treatment recommendations 2009. Schizophr Bull. 2010;36:94103.Google Scholar
Reddy, YC, Srinath, S, Prakash, HM, et al. A follow-up study of juvenile obsessive-compulsive disorder from India. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2003;107:457464.Google Scholar
Regier, DA, Narrow, WE, Clarke, DE, et al. DSM-5 field trials in the United States and Canada, Part II: test-retest reliability of selected categorical diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170:5970.Google Scholar
Sanislow, CA, Pine, DS, Quinn, KJ, et al. Developing constructs for psychopathology research: research domain criteria. J Abnorm Psychol. 2010;119:631639.Google Scholar
Gillan, CM, Fineberg, NA, Robbins, TW. A trans-diagnostic perspective on obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Med. 2017;47:15281548.Google Scholar
Insel, TR. The NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Project: precision medicine for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171:395397.Google Scholar
Haro, JM, Ayuso-Mateos, JL, Bitter, I, et al. ROAMER: roadmap for mental health research in Europe. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2014;23(Suppl 1):114.Google Scholar

References

Stein, DJ. Subthreshold and residual symptoms in depression and anxiety disorders: where next? Medicographia. 2014;36(4):452457.Google Scholar
APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, SA, Eisen, JL. The course and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Davis, KL, Charney DC, Coyle JT, Nemeroff C, eds. Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins; 2002:15931608.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Fabricant, LE, Taylor, S, Deacon, BJ, McKay, D, Storch, EA. The relevance of analogue studies for understanding obsessions and compulsions. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014;34(3):206217.Google Scholar
Fullana, MA, Mataix-Cols, D, Caspi, A, et al. Obsessions and compulsions in the community: prevalence, interference, help-seeking, developmental stability, and co-occurring psychiatric conditions. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(3):329336.Google Scholar
Miller, ES, Hoxha, D, Wisner, KL, Gossett, DR. Obsessions and compulsions in postpartum women without obsessive compulsive disorder. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2015;24(10):825830.Google Scholar
Myers, SG, Wells, A. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms: the contribution of metacognitions and responsibility. J Anxiety Disord. 2005;19(7):806817.Google Scholar
Okasha, A, Ragheb, K, Attia, AH, Seif el Dawla, A, Okasha, T, Ismail, R. Prevalence of obsessive compulsive symptoms (OCS) in a sample of Egyptian adolescents. Encephale. 2001;27(1):814.Google Scholar
Shams, G, Foroughi, E, Esmaili, Y, Amini, H, Ebrahimkhani, N. Prevalence rates of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and psychiatric comorbidity among adolescents in Iran. Acta Med Iran. 2011;49(10):680687.Google Scholar
Degonda, M, Wyss, M, Angst, J. The Zurich Study. XVIII. Obsessive-compulsive disorders and syndromes in the general population. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1993;243(1):1622.Google Scholar
Maina, G, Albert, U, Bogetto, F, Ravizza, L. Obsessive-compulsive syndromes in older adolescents. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1999;100(6):447450.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, Gale, T, Rossler, W, Angst, J. Lifetime comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and sub-threshold obsessive-compulsive symptomatology in the community: impact, prevalence, socio-demographic and clinical characteristics. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):188196.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, Gale, T, Rossler, W, Angst, J. Remission of obsessive-compulsive disorders and syndromes; evidence from a prospective community cohort study over 30 years. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):179187.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, CE, et al. A prospective population-based cohort study of the prevalence, incidence and impact of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):170178.Google Scholar
Abramovitch, A, Shaham, N, Levin, L, Bar-Hen, M, Schweiger, A. Response inhibition in a subclinical obsessive-compulsive sample. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2015;46:6671.Google Scholar
Grabe, HJ, Meyer, C, Hapke, U, et al. Lifetime-comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and subclinical obsessive-compulsive disorder in Northern Germany. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;251(3):130135.Google Scholar
Zucker, BG, Craske, MG, Blackmore, MA, Nitz, A. A cognitive behavioral workshop for subclinical obsessions and compulsions. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(2):289304.Google Scholar
Malakar, P, Basu, J. Subclinical obsessive-compulsive symptoms, cognitive processes, school achievement, and intelligence-achievement relationship in adolescents. Int J School Educ Psychol. 2017;5(2):115125.Google Scholar
Clark, DA, Inozu, M. Unwanted intrusive thoughts: cultural, contextual, covariational, and characterological determinants of diversity. J Obsess Compuls Relat Disord. 2014;3(2):195204.Google Scholar
Pascual-Vera, B, Roncero-Sanchis, M, Belloch Fuster, A. Are unwanted mental intrusions a transdiagnostic variable? Psicothema. 2017;29(2):166171.Google Scholar
Radomsky, AS, Alcolado, GM, Abramowitz, JS, et al. Part 1 – You can run but you can’t hide: intrusive thoughts on six continents. J Obsess Compuls Relat Disord. 2014;3(3):269279.Google Scholar
de Bruijn, C, Beun, S, de Graaf, R, ten Have, M, Denys, D. Subthreshold symptoms and obsessive–compulsive disorder: evaluating the diagnostic threshold. Psychol Med. 2009;40(6):989997.Google Scholar
Adam, Y, Meinlschmidt, G, Gloster, AT, Lieb, R. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in the community: 12-month prevalence, comorbidity and impairment. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(3):339349.Google Scholar
Goracci, A, Martinucci, M, Kaperoni, A, et al. Quality of life and subthreshold obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2007;19(6):357361.Google Scholar
Ruscio, AM, Stein, DJ, Chiu, WT, Kessler, RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):5363.Google Scholar
Coles, ME, Johnson, EM, Schubert, JR. Retrospective reports of the development of obsessive compulsive disorder: extending knowledge of the protracted symptom phase. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2011;39(5):579589.Google Scholar
Evans, DW, Leckman, JF, Carter, A, et al. Ritual, habit, and perfectionism: the prevalence and development of compulsive-like behavior in normal young children. Child Dev. 1997;68(1):5868.Google Scholar
Fullana, MA, Vilagut, G, Rojas-Farreras, S, et al. Obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions in the general population: results from an epidemiological study in six European countries. J Affect Disord. 2010;124(3):291299.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, PM. Obsessional-compulsive problems: a cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behav Res Ther. 1985;23(5):571583.Google Scholar
Calkins, AW, Berman, NC, Wilhelm, S. Recent advances in research on cognition and emotion in OCD: a review. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2013;15(5):357.Google Scholar
Myers, SG, Wells, A. An experimental manipulation of metacognition: a test of the metacognitive model of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behav Res Ther. 2013;51(4–5):177184.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Herman, AE. Maternal behavior and developmental psychopathology. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51(1):2743.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Mayes, LC. Understanding developmental psychopathology: how useful are evolutionary accounts? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(10):10111021.Google Scholar
Kim, M-S, Jang, K-M, Kim, B-N. The neuropsychological profile of a subclinical obsessive-compulsive sample. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2009;15(2):286290.Google Scholar
Apter, A, Fallon, TJ, Jr, King, RA, et al. Obsessive-compulsive characteristics: from symptoms to syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 35(7):907912.Google Scholar
Blom, RM, Hagestein-de Bruijn, C, de Graaf, R, ten Have, M, Denys, DA. Obsessions in normality and psychopathology. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(10):870875.Google Scholar
Alvarenga, PG, Cesar, RC, Leckman, JF, et al. Obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions in a population-based, cross-sectional sample of school-aged children. J Psychiatr Res. 2015;62:108114.Google Scholar
Alvarenga, PG, do Rosario, MC, Cesar, RC, et al. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms are associated with psychiatric comorbidities, behavioral and clinical problems: a population-based study of Brazilian school children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25(2):175182.Google Scholar
Jaisoorya, T, Janardhan Reddy, Y, Nair, B, et al. Prevalence and correlates of obsessive-compulsive disorder and subthreshold obsessive-compulsive disorder among college students in Kerala, India. Indian J Psychiatry. 2017;59(1):5662.Google Scholar
Witthauer, C, Gloster, AT, Meyer, AH, Lieb, R. Physical diseases among persons with obsessive compulsive symptoms and disorder: a general population study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2014;49(12):20132022.Google Scholar
Vivan Ade, S, Rodrigues, L, Wendt, G, Bicca, MG, Braga, DT, Cordioli, AV. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms and obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescents: a population-based study. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2014;36(2):111118.Google Scholar
Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Waller, JL, et al. Incidence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(7):898906.Google Scholar
Torres, AR, Fontenelle, LF, Ferrao, YA, et al. Clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder with hoarding symptoms: a multicenter study. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46(6):724732.Google Scholar
Skoog, G, Skoog, I. A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(2):121127.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Sibrava, NJ, Boisseau, CL, et al. Five-year course of obsessive-compulsive disorder: predictors of remission and relapse. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(3):233239.Google Scholar
Pauls, DL. The genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2010;12(2):149163.Google Scholar
Grabe, HJ, Ruhrmann, S, Ettelt, S, et al. Alexithymia in obsessive-compulsive disorder – results from a family study. Psychother Psychosom. 2006;75(5):312318.Google Scholar
Black, DW, Gaffney, GR. Subclinical obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: additional results from a “high-risk” study. CNS Spectr. 2008;13(9 Suppl 14):5461.Google Scholar
Zink, M. Comorbid obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: insight into pathomechanisms facilitates treatment. Adv Med. 2014;2014:18.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Whitney, KA. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: prevalence, correlates and treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(1):99107.Google Scholar
Stryjer, R, Dambinsky, Y, Timinsky, I, et al. Escitalopram in the treatment of patients with schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label, prospective study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;28(2):9698.Google Scholar
International Advisory Group for the Revision of ICDM, Behavioural D. A conceptual framework for the revision of the ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. World Psychiatry. 2011;10(2):8692.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Zeni-Graiff, M, Yucel, M. Is there a role for lifestyle interventions in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders? Curr Med Chem. 2018 Jan 4. doi: 10.2174/0929867325666180104150854.Google Scholar
Yung, AR, Nelson, B. Young people at ultra high risk for psychosis: research from the PACE clinic. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2011;33(Suppl 2):s143s160.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Hasler, G. The analytical epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: risk factors and correlates. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008;32(1):115.Google Scholar
Grados, MA, Labuda, MC, Riddle, MA, Walkup, JT. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiatry. 1997;9(1):8398.Google Scholar
Nelson, B, McGorry, PD, Wichers, M, Wigman, JTW, Hartmann, JA. Moving from static to dynamic models of the onset of mental disorder: a review. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(5):528534.Google Scholar
Frances, A. Psychiatric fads and overdiagnosis: normality is an endangered species. Pyschol Today. 2010 June 2. Available from: www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dsm5-in-distress/201006/psychiatric-fads-and-overdiagnosis (accessed July 9, 2018).Google Scholar

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Brown, TA, Barlow, DH, DiNardo, PA. Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV, Adult Version: Client Interview Schedule. New York, NY: Graywind Publications; 1994.Google Scholar
First, MB, Spitzer, RL, Gibbon, M, Williams, JB. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders. New York, NY: New York State Psychiatric Institute; 1995.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J, Birmaher, B, Brent, D, et al. Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(7):980988.Google Scholar
Silverman, WK, Albano, AM, Barlow, DH. Manual for the ADIS-IV-C/P. New York, NY: Psychological Corporation; 1996.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: II. Validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(11):10121016.Google Scholar
Scahill, L, Riddle, MA, McSwiggin-Hardin, M, et al. Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: reliability and validity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):844852.Google Scholar
Lewin, AB, Piacentini, J, De Nadai, AS, et al. Defining clinical severity in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Assess. 2014;26(2):679.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, De Nadai, AS, do Rosário, MC, et al. Defining clinical severity in adults with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2015;63:3035.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Murphy, TK, Geffken, GR, et al. Psychometric evaluation of the Children’s Yale–Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Psychiatry Res. 2004;129(1):9198.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, de la Cruz, LF, Nordsletten, AE, Lenhard, F, Isomura, K, Simpson, HB. Towards an international expert consensus for defining treatment response, remission, recovery and relapse in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World Psychiatry. 2016;15(1):8081.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Lewin, AB, De Nadai, AS, Murphy, TK. Defining treatment response and remission in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a signal detection analysis of the Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(7):708717.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Abramowitz, JS, Diefenbach, GJ. Defining response in clinical trials for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a signal detection analysis of the Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(12):15491557.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Rasmussen, SA, Price, LH, Larson, MJ, Murphy, TK, Goodman, WK. Development and psychometric evaluation of the Yale–Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale – Second Edition. Psychol Assess. 2010;22(2):223.Google Scholar
Insel, TR, Murphy, DL, Cohen, RM, Alterman, I, Kilts, C, Linnoila, M. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind trial of clomipramine and clorgyline. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1983;40(6):605612.Google Scholar
Rosario-Campos, MC, Miguel, EC, Quatrano, S, et al. The Dimensional Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (DY-BOCS): an instrument for assessing obsessive–compulsive symptom dimensions. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(5):495504.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Huppert, JD, Leiberg, S, et al. The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: development and validation of a short version. Psychol Assess. 2002;14(4):485.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Bagner, D, Merlo, LJ, et al. Florida obsessive-compulsive inventory: development, reliability, and validity. J Clin Psychol. 2007;63(9):851859.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Simpson, HB. Guideline Watch (March 2013): Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
Huppert, JD, Walther, MR, Hajcak, G, et al. The OCI-R: validation of the subscales in a clinical sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2007;21(3):394406.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Coles, M, Huppert, JD, Pasupuleti, RV, Franklin, ME, March, J. Development and validation of a child version of the obsessive compulsive inventory. Behav Ther. 2010;41(1):121132.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Deacon, BJ, Olatunji, BO, et al. Assessment of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: development and evaluation of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Psychol Assess. 2010;22(1):180.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Khanna, M, Merlo, LJ, et al. Children’s Florida obsessive compulsive inventory: psychometric properties and feasibility of a self-report measure of obsessive–compulsive symptoms in youth. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2009;40(3):467483.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Deacon, BJ, Olatunji, BO, et al. Assessment of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: development and evaluation of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Psychol Assess. 2010;22(1):180.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Stein, DJ, Rauch, SL, et al. Should an obsessive–compulsive spectrum grouping of disorders be included in DSM-V? Depress Anxiety. 2010;27(6):528555.Google Scholar
Ehring, T, Watkins, ER. Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. Int J Cogn Ther. 2008;1(3):192205.Google Scholar
Wahl, K, Schönfeld, S, Hissbach, J, et al. Differences and similarities between obsessive and ruminative thoughts in obsessive-compulsive and depressed patients: a comparative study. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2011;42(4):454461.Google Scholar
McEvoy, PM, Mahoney, AE, Moulds, ML. Are worry, rumination, and post-event processing one and the same? Development of the Repetitive Thinking Questionnaire. J Anxiety Disord. 2010;24(5):509519.Google Scholar
Turner, SM, Beidel, DC, Stanley, MA. Are obsessional thoughts and worry different cognitive phenomena? Clin Psychol Rev. 1992;12(2):257270.Google Scholar
Schut, AJ, Castonguay, LG, Borkovec, TD. Compulsive checking behaviors in generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychol. 2001;57(6):705715.Google Scholar
Beesdo-Baum, K, Jenjahn, E, Höfler, M, Lueken, U, Becker, ES, Hoyer, J. Avoidance, safety behavior, and reassurance seeking in generalized anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(11):948957.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Kozak, MJ. DSM-IV field trial: obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(1):9096.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Phillips, KA, Baer, L, Beer, DA, Atala, KD, Rasmussen, SA. The Brown assessment of beliefs scale: reliability and validity. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(1):102108.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Phillips, KA, Coles, ME, Rasmussen, SA. Insight in obsessive compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45(1):1015.Google Scholar
Williams, MT, Farris, SG. Sexual orientation obsessions in obsessive–compulsive disorder: prevalence and correlates. Psychiatry Res. 2011;187(1):156159.Google Scholar
Ruzzano, L, Borsboom, D, Geurts, HM. Repetitive behaviors in autism and obsessive–compulsive disorder: new perspectives from a network analysis. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45(1):192202.Google Scholar
Zandt, F, Prior, M, Kyrios, M. Repetitive behaviour in children with high functioning autism and obsessive compulsive disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;37(2):251259.Google Scholar
Ben-Sasson, A, Hen, L, Fluss, R, Cermak, SA, Engel-Yeger, B, Gal, E. A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(1):11.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Coles, ME, Shea, MT, et al. Clarifying the convergence between obsessive compulsive personality disorder criteria and obsessive compulsive disorder. J Pers Disord. 2006;20(3):294305.Google Scholar
Mancebo, MC, Eisen, JL, Grant, JE, Rasmussen, SA. Obsessive compulsive personality disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder: clinical characteristics, diagnostic difficulties, and treatment. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2005;17(4):197204.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Benzaquen, SD. The obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry. 1997;9(1):99110.Google Scholar
Shprecher, D, Kurlan, R. The management of tics. Mov Disord. 2009;24(1):15Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Altamura, AC, Allen, A, Marazziti, D, Hollander, E. Epidemiologic and clinical updates on impulse control disorders: a critical review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;256(8):464475.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Riddle, MA, Hardin, MT, et al. The Yale Global Tic Severity Scale: initial testing of a clinician-rated scale of tic severity. J Am Acad Child AdolescPsychiatry. 1989;28(4):566573.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Oostermeijer, S, Harrison, BJ, Pantelis, C, Yücel, M. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, impulse control disorders and drug addiction. Drugs. 2011;71(7):827840.Google Scholar
Kashyap, H, Fontenelle, LF, Miguel, EC, et al. “Impulsive compulsivity” in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a phenotypic marker of patients with poor clinical outcome. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46(9):11461152.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behav Res Ther. 2001;39(8):9871006.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. Psychometric validation of the obsessive belief questionnaire and interpretation of intrusions inventory – Part 2: factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(11):15271542.Google Scholar
Gentes, EL, Ruscio, AM. A meta-analysis of the relation of intolerance of uncertainty to symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011 Aug 31;31(6):923933.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Worhunsky, P, Maltby, N. Are “obsessive” beliefs specific to OCD?: a comparison across anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(4):469480.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Lackey, GR, Wheaton, MG. Obsessive–compulsive symptoms: the contribution of obsessional beliefs and experiential avoidance. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(2):160166.Google Scholar
Blakey, SM, Abramowitz, JS, Mahaffey, BL. Do obsessive beliefs predict body image disturbance? J Obsess-Compuls Rel. 2016;11:96100.Google Scholar
Coles, ME, Heimberg, RG, Frost, RO, Steketee, G. Not just right experiences and obsessive–compulsive features: experimental and self-monitoring perspectives. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(2):153167.Google Scholar
Summerfeldt, LJ. Understanding and treating incompleteness in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychol. 2004;60(11):11551168.Google Scholar
Summerfeldt, LJ, Kloosterman, PH, Antony, MM, Swinson, RP. Examining an obsessive-compulsive core dimensions model: structural validity of harm avoidance and incompleteness. J Obsess-Compuls Rel. 2014;3(2):8394.Google Scholar
Taylor, S, McKay, D, Crowe, KB, et al. The sense of incompleteness as a motivator of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: an empirical analysis of concepts and correlates. Behav Ther. 2014;45(2):254262.Google Scholar
Pietrefesa, AS, Coles, ME. Moving beyond an exclusive focus on harm avoidance in obsessive-compulsive disorder: behavioral validation for the separability of harm avoidance and incompleteness. Behav Ther. 2009;40(3):251259.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Ebesutani, C, David, B, Fan, Q, McGrath, PB. Disgust proneness and obsessive–compulsive symptoms in a clinical sample: structural differentiation from negative affect. J Anxiety Disord. 2011;25(7):932938.Google Scholar
Summers, BJ, Matheny, NL, Cougle, JR. “Not just right” experiences and incompleteness in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2017;247:200207.Google Scholar
da Silva Prado, H, do Rosario, MC, Lee, J, Hounie, AG, Shavitt, RG, Miguel, EC. Sensory phenomena in obsessive-compulsive disorder and tic disorders: a review of the literature. CNS Spectr. 2008;13(5):425432.Google Scholar
Robinson, LJ, Freeston, MH. Emotion and internal experience in obsessive compulsive disorder: reviewing the role of alexithymia, anxiety sensitivity and distress tolerance. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014;34(3):256271.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Wolitzky-Taylor, KB. Anxiety sensitivity and the anxiety disorders: a meta-analytic review and synthesis. Psychol Bull. 2009;135(6):974999.Google Scholar
Timpano, KR, Buckner, JD, Richey, JA, Murphy, DL, Schmidt, NB. Exploration of anxiety sensitivity and distress tolerance as vulnerability factors for hoarding behaviors. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(4):343353.Google Scholar
Taylor, S, Zvolensky, MJ, Cox, BJ, et al. Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychol Assess. 2007;19(2):176.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Broman-Fulks, JJ. A taxometric study of the latent structure of disgust sensitivity: converging evidence for dimensionality. Psychol Assess. 2007;19(4):437.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Cisler, J, McKay, D, Phillips, ML. Is disgust associated with psychopathology? Emerging research in the anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2010;175(1–2):110.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Armstrong, T, Elwood, L. Is disgust proneness associated with anxiety and related disorders? A qualitative review and meta-analysis of group comparison and correlational studies. Perspect Psychol Sc. 2017;12(4):613648.Google Scholar
Van Overveld, WJM, de Jong, PD, Peters, ML, Cavanagh, K, Davey, GCL. Disgust propensity and disgust sensitivity: separate constructs that are differentially related to specific fears. Pers Individ Dif. 2006;41(7):12411252.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Cisler, JM, Deacon, BJ, Connolly, K, Lohr, JM. The disgust propensity and sensitivity scale-revised: psychometric properties and specificity in relation to anxiety disorder symptoms. J Anxiety Disord. 2007;21(7):918930.Google Scholar
Lebowitz, ER, Panza, KE, Su, J, Bloch, MH. Family accommodation in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Expert Rev Neurother. 2012;12(2):229238.Google Scholar
Wu, MS, McGuire, JF, Martino, C, Phares, V, Selles, RR, Storch, EA. A meta-analysis of family accommodation and OCD symptom severity. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;45:3444.Google Scholar
Lebowitz, ER, Scharfstein, LA, Jones, J. Comparing family accommodation in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety disorders, and nonanxious children. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(12):10181025.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Johnco, C, McGuire, JF, et al. An initial study of family accommodation in children and adolescents with chronic tic disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;26(1):99109.Google Scholar
Calvocoressi, L, Mazure, CM, Kasl, SV, et al. Family accommodation of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: instrument development and assessment of family behavior. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1999;187(10):636642.Google Scholar
Pinto, A, Van Noppen, B, Calvocoressi, L. Development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of a self-rated version of the Family Accommodation Scale for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. J Obsess-Compuls Rel. 2013;2(4):457465.Google Scholar
Wu, MS, Pinto, A, Horng, B, et al. Psychometric properties of the Family Accommodation Scale for Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder–Patient Version. Psychol Assess. 2016;28(3):251.Google Scholar
Garcia, AM, Sapyta, JJ, Moore, PS, et al. Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome in the Pediatric Obsessive Compulsive Treatment Study (POTS I). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(10):10241033.Google Scholar
Kishore, VR, Samar, R, Reddy, YJ, Chandrasekhar, CR, Thennarasu, K. Clinical characteristics and treatment response in poor and good insight obsessive–compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 2004;19(4):202208.Google Scholar
Himle, JA, Van Etten, ML, Janeck, AS, Fischer, DJ. Insight as a predictor of treatment outcome in behavioral group treatment for obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognit Ther Res. 2006;30(5):661666.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Rasmussen, SA, Phillips, KA, et al. Insight and treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2001;42(6):494497.Google Scholar
Alonso, P, Menchón, JM, Segalàs, C, et al. Clinical implications of insight assessment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2008;49(3):305312.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Hollander, E. Treating body dysmorphic disorder with medication: evidence, misconceptions, and a suggested approach. Body Image. 2008;5(1):1327.Google Scholar
Himle, MB, Woods, DW, Piacentini, JC, Walkup, JT. Brief review of habit reversal training for Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2006;21(8):719725.Google Scholar
March, JS, Franklin, ME, Leonard, H, et al. Tics moderate treatment outcome with sertraline but not cognitive-behavior therapy in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):344347.Google Scholar
Merlo, LJ, Lehmkuhl, HD, Geffken, GR, Storch, EA. Decreased family accommodation associated with improved therapy outcome in pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77(2):355.Google Scholar
Thompson-Hollands, J, Edson, A, Tompson, MC, Comer, JS. Family involvement in the psychological treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. J Fam Psychol. 2014;28(3):287298.Google Scholar
Schmidt, NB, Capron, DW, Raines, AM, Allan, NP. Randomized clinical trial evaluating the efficacy of a brief intervention targeting anxiety sensitivity cognitive concerns. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2014;82(6):10231033.Google Scholar
Taboas, W, Ojserkis, R, McKay, D. Change in disgust reactions following cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety disorders. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2015;15(1):17.Google Scholar
Mason, EC, Richardson, R. Treating disgust in anxiety disorders. Clin Psychol. 2012;19(2):180194.Google Scholar
Flessner, CA, Woods, DW, Franklin, ME, Cashin, SE, Keuthen, NJ, Board, TL. The Milwaukee inventory for subtypes of trichotillomania-adult version (MIST-A): development of an instrument for the assessment of “focused” and “automatic” hair pulling. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2008;30(1):2030.Google Scholar
Wilhelm, S, Phillips, KA, Steketee, G. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Treatment Manual. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2014.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Worden, BL, Wootton, BM, Gilliam, CM. CBT for Hoarding Disorder: A Group Therapy Program Therapist’s Guide. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2017.Google Scholar
Barlow, DH, Farchione, TJ, Fairholme, CP, et al. Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders: Therapist Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010.Google Scholar

References

Haro, JM, Ayuso-Mateos, JL, Bitter, I, et al. ROAMER: roadmap for mental health research in Europe. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2014;23(S1):114.Google Scholar
Insel, T, Cuthbert, B, Garvey, M, et al. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(7):748751.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Braun, A, Simeon, D. Should OCD leave the anxiety disorders in DSM-V? The case for obsessive compulsive-related disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(4):317329.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Kogan, CS, Atmaca, M, et al. The classification of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders in the ICD-11. J Affect Disord. 2016;190:663674.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Menchon, JM, Zohar, J, Veltman, DJ. Compulsivity: a new trans-diagnostic research domain for the Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER) and Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiatives. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(5):797799.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Doernberg, E, Shavitt, R, et al. The cost and impact of compulsivity: a research perspective. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(5):800809.Google Scholar
Marras, A, Fineberg, N, Pallanti, S. Obsessive compulsive and related disorders: comparing DSM-5 and ICD-11. CNS Spectr. 2016;21(4):324333.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Baldwin, DS, Menchon, JM, et al. Manifesto for a European research network into obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23(7):561568.Google Scholar
Lochner, C, Fineberg, NA, Zohar, J, et al. Comorbidity in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): a report from the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders (ICOCS). Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55(7):15131519.Google Scholar
De Vries, FE, Cath, DC, Hoogendoorn, AW, et al. Tic-related versus tic-free obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical picture and 2-year natural course. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(10):e1240e1247.Google Scholar
Kaur, S, Wikramanayake, M, Kolli, S, et al. Autistic spectrum disorder in adults with obsessive compulsive disorder: results from a UK survey. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(5):886887.Google Scholar
Darrow, SM, Hirschtritt, ME, Davis, LK, et al. Identification of two heritable cross-disorder endophenotypes for Tourette syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;174(4):387396.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Benatti, B, Buoli, M, et al. The influence of age at onset and duration of illness on long-term outcome in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a report from the International College of Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum Disorders (ICOCS). Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23(8):865871.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, Gale, T, Rössler, W, Angst, J. Remission of obsessive-compulsive disorders and syndromes; evidence from a prospective community cohort study over thirty years. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):179187.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Gale, TM. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of obsessive compulsive disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;8(1):107129.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Brown, A, Reghunandanan, S, Pampaloni, I. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012;15(8):11731191.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Fineberg, N, Reghunandanan, S. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 2015.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Stein, DJ, Fineberg, NA, Marteau, F, Legault, M. Quality of life outcomes in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: relationship to treatment response and symptom relapse. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(6):784792.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Andersen, EW, Tonnoir, B, Fineberg, N. Escitalopram in obsessive–compulsive disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled, paroxetine-referenced, fixed-dose, 24-week study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007;23(4):701711.Google Scholar
Tenney, NH, Denys, DA, van Megen, HJ, Glas, G, Westenberg, HG. Effect of a pharmacological intervention on quality of life in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;18(1):2933.Google Scholar
Soomro, GM, Altman, D, Rajagopal, S, Oakley-Browne, M. Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) versus placebo for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;1:CD001765.Google Scholar
McGuire, JF, Piacentini, J, Lewin, AB, Brennan, EA, Murphy, TK, Storch, EA. A meta-analysis of cognitive behavior therapy and medication for child obsessive-compulsive disorder: moderators of treatment efficacy, response, and remission. Depress Anxiety. 2015;32(8):580593.Google Scholar
Skapinakis, P, Caldwell, DM, Hollingworth, W, et al. Pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions for management of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(8):730739.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Steketee, G, Kozak, MJ, Dugger, D. Effects of imipramine on depression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Psychiatry Res. 1987;21(2):123136.Google Scholar
Volavka, J, Neziroglu, F, Yaryura-Tobias, JA. Clomipramine and imipramine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1985;14(1):8593.Google Scholar
Insel, TR, Murphy, DL, Cohen, RM, Alterman, I, Kilts, C, Linnoila, M. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. A double-blind trial of clomipramine and clorgyline. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1983;40(6):605612.Google Scholar
Jenike, MA, Baer, L, Minichiello, WE, Rauch, SL, Buttolph, ML. Placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine and phenelzine for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(9):12611264.Google Scholar
Ananth, J, Pecknold, JC, Van Den Steen, N, Engelsmann, F. Double-blind comparative study of clomipramine and amitriptyline in obsessive neurosis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol. 1981;5(3):257262.Google Scholar
Thoren, P, Asberg, M, Cronholm, B, Jornestedt, L, Traskman, L. Clomipramine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. I. A controlled clinical trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980;37(11):12811285.Google Scholar
McDougle, CJ, Price, LH, Goodman, WK, Charney, DS, Heninger, GR. A controlled trial of lithium augmentation in fluvoxamine-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: lack of efficacy. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1991;11(3):175184.Google Scholar
Pigott, TA, L’Heureux, F, Hill, JL, Bihari, K, Bernstein, SE, Murphy, DL. A double-blind study of adjuvant buspirone hydrochloride in clomipramine-treated patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1992;12(1):1118.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Hollander, E, Mullen, LS, DeCaria, CM, Liebowitz, MR. Comparison of clomipramine, alprazolam and placebo in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin. 1992;7(6):389395.Google Scholar
Hewlett, WA, Vinogradov, S, Agras, WS. Clomipramine, clonazepam, and clonidine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1992;12(6):420430.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Kaplan, A, Stahl, SM. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of clonazepam in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2003;4(1):3034.Google Scholar
Crockett, BA, Churchill, E, Davidson, JR. A double-blind combination study of clonazepam with sertraline in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2004;16(3):127132.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Hengartner, MP, Bergbaum, C, Gale, T, Rössler, W, Angst, J. Lifetime comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and sub-threshold obsessive-compulsive symptomatology in the community: impact, prevalence, socio-demographic and clinical characteristics. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(3):188196.Google Scholar
Hoehn-Saric, R, Ninan, P, Black, DW, et al. Multicenter double-blind comparison of sertraline and desipramine for concurrent obsessive-compulsive and major depressive disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(1):7682.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Kelmendi, B, Coric, V, Bracken, MB, Leckman, JF. A systematic review: antipsychotic augmentation with treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(7):622632.Google Scholar
Abramovitch, A, Dar, R, Mittelman, A, Schweiger A. Don’t judge a book by its cover: ADHD-like symptoms in obsessive compulsive disorder. J Obsessive-Compuls Relat Disord. 2013;2(1):5361.Google Scholar
King, J, Dowling, N, Leow, F. Methylphenidate in the treatment of an adolescent female with obsessive-compulsive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a case report. Australas Psychiatry. 2016;25(2):178180.Google Scholar
Taormina, SP, Galloway, MP, Rosenberg, DR. Treatment efficacy of combined sertraline and guanfacine in comorbid obsessive–compulsive disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: two case studies. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2016;37(6):491495.Google Scholar
The Clomipramine Collaborative Study Group. Clomipramine in the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48(8):730738.Google Scholar
De Veaugh-Geiss, J, Landau, P, Katz, R. Treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder with clomipramine. Psychiatr Ann. 1989; 19(2):9799.Google Scholar
Issaria, Y, Jakubovski, E, Bartley, CA, Pittenger, C, Bloch, MH. Early onset of response with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(5):e605e611.Google Scholar
Da Conceição Costa, DL, Shavitt, RG, Cesar, RC, et al. Can early improvement be an indicator of treatment response in obsessive-compulsive disorder? Implications for early-treatment decision-making. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(11):17001707.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S, Hackett, E, Duboff, E, et al. A 2-year study of sertraline in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1997;12(6):309316.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Sallee, FR, Pallanti, S. Rapid benefit of intravenous pulse loading of clomipramine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(3):396401.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, McGuire, J, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Leckman, JF, Pittenger, C. Meta-analysis of the dose–response relationship of SSRI in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(8):850855.Google Scholar
Baldwin, DS, Anderson, IM, Nutt, DJ, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol. 2005;19(6):567596.Google Scholar
Baldwin, DS, Anderson, IM, Nutt, DJ, et al. Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol. 2014;28(5):403439.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2007.Google Scholar
Andrews, G. Placebo response in depression: bane of research, boon to therapy. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;178(3):192194.Google Scholar
Grady, TA, Pigott, TA, L’Heureux, F, Hill, JL, Bernstein, SE, Murphy, DL. Double-blind study of adjuvant buspirone for fluoxetine-treated patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150(5):819821.Google Scholar
Sugarman, MA, Kirsch, I, Huppert, JD. Obsessive-compulsive disorder has a reduced placebo (and antidepressant) response compared to other anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2017;218:217226.Google Scholar
De la Fuente-Fernández, R, Ruth, TJ, Sossi, V, Schulzer, M, Calne, DB, Stoessl, AJ. Expectation and dopamine release: mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease. Science. 2001;293(5532):11641166.Google Scholar
Enck, P, Benedetti, F, Schedlowski, M. New insights into the placebo and nocebo responses. Neuron. 2008;59(2):195206.Google Scholar
Scott, DJ, Stohler, CS, Egnatuk, CM, Wang, H, Koeppe, RA, Zubieta, JK. Placebo and nocebo effects are defined by opposite opioid and dopaminergic responses. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65(2):220231.Google Scholar
Figee, M, de Koning, P, Klaassen, S, et al. Deep brain stimulation induces striatal dopamine release in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2014;75(8):647652.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Chamberlain, SR, Goudriaan, AE, et al. New developments in human neurocognition: clinical, genetic, and brain imaging correlates of impulsivity and compulsivity. CNS Spectr. 2014;19(1):6989.Google Scholar
Baumgarten, HG, Grozdanovic, Z. Role of serotonin in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;(35):1320.Google Scholar
El Mansari, M, Blier, P. Mechanisms of action of current and potential pharmacotherapies of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuro-psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006;30(3):362373.Google Scholar
Moreno, FA, Wiegand, CB, Taitano, EK, Delgado, PL. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(11):17351740.Google Scholar
Skoog, G, Skoog, I. A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(2):121127.Google Scholar
Eisen, JL, Sibrava, NJ, Boisseau, CL, et al. Five-year course of obsessive-compulsive disorder: predictors of remission and relapse. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(3):233239.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Pampaloni, I, Pallanti, S, Ipser, J, Stein, DJ. Sustained response versus relapse: the pharmacotherapeutic goal for obsessive–compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;22(6):313322.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Reghunandanan, S, Brown, A, Pampaloni, I. Pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: evidence-based treatment and beyond. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2013;47(2):121141.Google Scholar
Santana, L, Versiani, M, Mendlowicz, MV, Fontenelle, LF. Predictors of adherence among patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder undergoing naturalistic pharmacotherapy. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(1):8688.Google Scholar
Menchón, JM, van Ameringen, M, Dell’Osso, B, et al. Standards of care for obsessive-compulsive disorder centres. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2016;20(3):204208.Google Scholar
Micali, N, Heyman, I, Perez, M, et al. Long-term outcomes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: follow-up of 142 children and adolescents. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;197(2):128134.Google Scholar
Reddy, YC, Alur, AM, Manjunath, S, Kandavel, T, Math, SB. Long-term follow-up study of patients with serotonin reuptake inhibitor-nonresponsive obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(3):267272.Google Scholar
Garcia, AM, Sapyta, JJ, Moore, PS, et al. Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome in the Pediatric Obsessive Compulsive Treatment Study (POTS I). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(10):10241033.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Milsom, VA, Merlo, LJ, et al. Insight in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: associations with clinical presentation. Psychiatry Res. 2008;160(2):212220.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Merlo, LJ, Larson, MJ, et al. Impact of comorbidity on cognitive-behavioral therapy response in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47(5):583592.Google Scholar
Baer, L, Jenike, MA. Personality disorders in obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1992;15(4):803812.Google Scholar
Baer, L, Jenike, MA, Black, DW, Treece, C, Rosenfeld, R, Greist, J. Effect of axis II diagnoses on treatment outcome with clomipramine in 55 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49(11):862866.Google Scholar
Jenike, MA, Baer, L, Minichiello, WE, Schwartz, CE, Carey, RJ Jr. Concomitant obsessive-compulsive disorder and schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1986;143(4):530532.Google Scholar
Erzegovesi, S, Cavallini, MC, Cavedini, P, Diaferia, G, Locatelli, M, Bellodi, L. Clinical predictors of drug response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21(5):488492.Google Scholar
McDougle, CJ, Goodman, WK, Leckman, JF, Barr, LC, Heninger, GR, Price, LH. The efficacy of fluvoxamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: effects of comorbid chronic tic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1993;13(5):354358.Google Scholar
Hazari, N, Narayanaswamy, JC, Arumugham, SS. Predictors of response to serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(10):11751191.Google Scholar
Leckman, JF, Rauch, SL, Mataix-Cols, D. Symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder: implications for the DSM-V. CNS Spectr. 2007;12(5):376387, 400.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Craiglow, BG, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, et al. Predictors of early adult outcomes in pediatric-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Pediatrics. 2009; 124(4):10851093.Google Scholar
Conelea, CA, Walther, MR, Freeman, JB, et al. Tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): phenomenology and treatment outcome in the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study II. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53(12):13081316.Google Scholar
Højgaard, DR, Skarphedinsson, G, Nissen, JB, Hybel, KA, Ivarsson, T, Thomsen, PH. Pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder with tic symptoms: clinical presentation and treatment outcome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017; 26(6):681689.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Bartley, CA, Zipperer, L, et al. Meta-analysis: hoarding symptoms associated with poor treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(9):10251030.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Rauch, SL, Manzo, PA, Jenike, MA, Baer, L. Use of factor-analyzed symptom dimensions to predict outcome with serotonin reuptake inhibitors and placebo in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(9):14091416.Google Scholar
Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Bloch, MH, Kelmendi, B, et al. Dimensional predictors of response to SRI pharmacotherapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2010;121(1–2):175179.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Simpson, HB. Guideline Watch (March 2013): Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
Ninan, PT, Koran, LM, Kiev, A, et al. High-dose sertraline strategy for nonresponders to acute treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multicenter double-blind trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(1):1522.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Reghunandanan, S, Simpson, HB, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): practical strategies for pharmacological and somatic treatment in adults. Psychiatry Res. 2015;227(1):114125.Google Scholar
Khalsa, SS, Schiffman, JE, Bystritsky, A. Treatment-resistant OCD: options beyond first-line medications. Curr Psychiatr. 2011;10(11):45.Google Scholar
Connor, KM, Payne, VM, Gadde, KM, Zhang, W, Davidson, JR. The use of aripiprazole in obsessive-compulsive disorder: preliminary observations in 8 patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005; 66(1):4951.Google Scholar
Ercan, ES, Ardic, UA, Ercan, E, Yuce, D, Durak, S. A promising preliminary study of aripiprazole for treatment-resistant childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25(7):580584.Google Scholar
Skapinakis, P, Papatheodorou, T, Mavreas, V. Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonergic antidepressants in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007;17(2):7993.Google Scholar
Vulink, NC, Denys, D, Fluitman, SB, Meinardi, JC, Westenberg, HG. Quetiapine augments the effect of citalopram in non-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 76 patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70(7):1001.Google Scholar
Carey, PD, Lochner, C, Kidd, M, Van Ameringen, M, Stein, DJ, Denys, D. Quetiapine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-refractory obsessive–compulsive disorder: is response to treatment predictable? Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;27(6):321325. Available at doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e3283576881 (accessed April 19, 2017).Google Scholar
Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, Kasper, S. Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;16(3):557574.Google Scholar
Veale, D, Miles, S, Smallcombe, N, Ghezai, H, Goldacre, B, Hodsoll, J. Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in SSRI treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14(1):317.Google Scholar
Ducasse, D, Boyer, L, Michel, P, et al. D2 and D3 dopamine receptor affinity predicts effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in obsessive-compulsive disorders: a metaregression analysis. Psychopharmacology. 2014;231(18):37653770.Google Scholar
Marinova, Z, Chuang, DM, Fineberg, N. Glutamate-modulating drugs as a potential therapeutic strategy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15(7):977995.Google Scholar
Insel, TR, Hamilton, JA, Guttmacher, LB, Murphy, DL. D-amphetamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology. 1983;80(3):231235.Google Scholar
Joffe, RT, Swinson, RP, Levitt, AJ. Acute psychostimulant challenge in primary obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1991;11(4):237241.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Kegeles, LS, Levinson, A, et al. Randomized controlled crossover trial of ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: proof-of-concept. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(12):24752483.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Gamel, NN, Choung, HW, Smith, EH, Aboujaoude, EN. Mirtazapine for obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open trial followed by double-blind discontinuation. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(4):515520.Google Scholar
Ghaleiha, A, Entezari, N, Modabbernia, A, et al. Memantine add-on in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(2):175180.Google Scholar
Haghighi, M, Jahangard, L, Mohammad-Beigi, H, et al. In a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial, adjuvant memantine improved symptoms in inpatients suffering from refractory obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD). Psychopharmacology. 2013;228(4):633640.Google Scholar
Grant, PJ, Joseph, LA, Farmer, CA, et al. 12-week, placebo-controlled trial of add-on riluzole in the treatment of childhood-onset obsessive–compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014;39(6):14531459.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Bloch, MH, Wasylink, S, et al. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a pilot randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(8):10751084.Google Scholar
Emamzadehfard, S, Kamaloo, A, Paydary, K, et al. Riluzole in augmentation of fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;70(8):332341.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Micò, U, Pandolfo, G, et al. Lamotrigine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Psychopharmacol. 2012;26(11):14561462.Google Scholar
Khalkhali, M, Aram, S, Zarrabi, H, Kafie, M, Heidarzadeh, A. Lamotrigine augmentation versus placebo in serotonin reuptake inhibitors-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Iran J Psychiatry. 2016;11(2):104114.Google Scholar
Afshar, H, Roohafza, H, Mohammad-Beigi, H, et al. N-acetylcysteine add-on treatment in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(6):797803.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Oliver, G, Camfield, DA, et al. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 16-week, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. CNS Drugs. 2015;29(9):801809.Google Scholar
Paydary, K, Akamaloo, A, Ahmadipour, A, Pishgar, F, Emamzadehfard, S, Akhondzadeh, S. N-acetylcysteine augmentation therapy for moderate-to-severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2016; 41(2):214219.Google Scholar
Costa, DLC, Diniz, JB, Requena, G, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of n-acetylcysteine augmentation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(7):e766e773.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Aboujaoude, E, Bullock, KD, Franz, B, Gamel, N, Elliott, M. Double-blind treatment with oral morphine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(3):353359.Google Scholar
Heidari, M, Zarei, M, Hosseini, SM, et al. Ondansetron or placebo in the augmentation of fluvoxamine response over 8 weeks in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014;29(6):344350.Google Scholar
Soltani, F, Sayyah, M, Feizy, F, Malayeri, A, Siahpoosh, A, Motlagh, I. A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of ondansetron for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin. 2010;25(6):509513.Google Scholar
Askari, N, Moin, M, Sanati, M, et al. Granisetron adjunct to fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CNS Drugs. 2012;26(10):883892.Google Scholar
Wu, K, Hanna, GL, Rosenberg, DR, Arnold, PD. The role of glutamate signaling in the pathogenesis and treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2012;100(4):726735.Google Scholar
Ting, JT, Feng, G. Glutamatergic synaptic dysfunction and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr Chem Genomics. 2008;2:6275.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Bloch, MH, Williams, K. Glutamate abnormalities in obsessive compulsive disorder: neurobiology, pathophysiology, and treatment. Pharmacol Ther. 2011;132(3):314332.Google Scholar
Pauls, DL, Abramovitch, A, Rauch, SL, Geller, DA. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: an integrative genetic and neurobiological perspective. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014;15(6):410424.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, DR, Mirza, Y, Russell, A, Tang, J, Smith, JM, Banerjee, SP, Bhandari, R, Rose, M, Ivey, J, Boyd, C, Moore, GJ. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamatergic concentrations in childhood OCD and major depression versus healthy controls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(9):1146–53.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, DR, MacMaster, FP, Keshavan, MS, Fitzgerald, KD, Stewart, CM, Moore, GJ. Decrease in caudate glutamatergic concentrations in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder patients taking paroxetine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000; 39(9):10961103.Google Scholar
Kavirajan, H. Memantine: a comprehensive review of safety and efficacy. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2009;8(1):89109.Google Scholar
Aboujaoude, E, Barry, JJ, Gamel, N. Memantine augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;29(1):5155.Google Scholar
Bakhla, AK, Verma, V, Soren, S, Sarkhel, S, Chaudhury, S. An open-label trial of memantine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Ind Psychiatry J. 2013;22(2):149152.Google Scholar
Feusner, JD, Kerwin, L, Saxena, S, Bystritsky, A. Differential efficacy of memantine for obsessive-compulsive disorder vs. generalized anxiety disorder: an open-label trial. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2009;42(1):8193.Google Scholar
Niciu, MJ, Henter, ID, Luckenbaugh, DA, Zarate, CA Jr, Charney, DS. Glutamate receptor antagonists as fast-acting therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of depression: ketamine and other compounds. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2014;54:119139.Google Scholar
Price, RB, Nock, MK, Charney, DS, Mathew, SJ. Effects of intravenous ketamine on explicit and implicit measures of suicidality in treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(5):522526.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(11):10061011.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Wasylink, S, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, et al. Effects of ketamine in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72(11):964970.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Coric, V, Banasr, M, Bloch, M, Krystal, JH, Sanacora, G. Riluzole in the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders. CNS Drugs. 2008;22(9):761786.Google Scholar
Coric, V, Taskiran, S, Pittenger, C, et al. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 58(5):424428.Google Scholar
Grant, P, Lougee, L, Hirschtritt, M, Swedo, SE. An open-label trial of riluzole, a glutamate antagonist, in children with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17(6):761767.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Kelmendi, B, Wasylink, S, Bloch, MH, Coric, V. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a series of 13 cases, with long-term follow-up. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28(3):363367. Available from: doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181727548 (accessed April 19, 2017).Google Scholar
Sasso, DA, Kalanithi, PS, Trueblood, KV, et al. Beneficial effects of the glutamate-modulating agent riluzole on disordered eating and pathological skin-picking behaviors. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26(6):685687.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C. Glutamatergic agents for OCD and related disorders. Curr Treat Options Psychiatry. 2015;2(3):271283.Google Scholar
Berlin, HA, Koran, LM, Jenike, MA, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(5):716721.Google Scholar
Afshar, H, Akuchekian, S, Mahaky, B, Zarean, E. Topiramate augmentation in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Res Med Sci. 2014;19(10):976981. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4274576/ (accessed April 19, 2017).Google Scholar
Kemp, DE, Gilmer, WS, Fleck, J, Dago, PL. An association of intrusive, repetitive phrases with lamotrigine treatment in bipolar II disorder. CNS Spectr. 2007;12(2):106111.Google Scholar
Kuloglu, M, Caykoylu, A, Ekinci, O, Yilmaz, E. Lamotrigine-induced obsessional symptoms in a patient with bipolar II disorder: a case report. J Psychopharmacol. 2009;23(8):10011003.Google Scholar
Ozkara, C, Ozmen, M, Erdogan, A, Yalug, I. Topiramate related obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 2005;20(1):7879.Google Scholar
Thuile, J, Even, C, Guelfi, JD. Topiramate may induce obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;60(3):394.Google Scholar
Kreek, MJ. Methadone-related opioid agonist pharmacotherapy for heroin addiction. History, recent molecular and neurochemical research and future in mainstream medicine. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;909:186216.Google Scholar
Srisurapanont, M, Jarusuraisin, N. Naltrexone for the treatment of alcoholism: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;8(2):267280.Google Scholar
Lee, YK, Park, SW, Kim, YK, et al. Effects of naltrexone on the ethanol-induced changes in the rat central dopaminergic system. Alcohol Alcohol. 2005;40(4):297301.Google Scholar
Kim, SW. Opioid antagonists in the treatment of impulse-control disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(4):159164.Google Scholar
Kim, SW, Grant, JE, Adson, DE, Shin, YC. Double-blind naltrexone and placebo comparison study in the treatment of pathological gambling. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49(11):914921.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Kim, SW. A case of kleptomania and compulsive sexual behavior treated with naltrexone. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2001;13(4):229231.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Kim, SW. An open-label study of naltrexone in the treatment of kleptomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63(4):349356.Google Scholar
Sandyk, R. Naloxone abolishes obsessive-compulsive behavior in Tourette’s syndrome. Int J Neurosci. 1987;35(1–2):9394.Google Scholar
Keuler, DJ, Altemus, M, Michelson, D, Greenberg, B, Murphy, DL. Behavioral effects of naloxone infusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40(2):154156.Google Scholar
Insel, TR, Pickar, D. Naloxone administration in obsessive compulsive disorder: report of two cases. Am J Psychiatry. 1983;140(9):12191220.Google Scholar
Amiaz, R, Fostick, L, Gershon, A, Zohar, J. Naltrexone augmentation in OCD: a double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008;18(6):455461.Google Scholar
Shapira, NA, Keck, PE Jr, Goldsmith, TD, McConville, BJ, Eis, M, McElroy, SL. Open-label pilot study of tramadol hydrochloride in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 1997;6(4):170173.Google Scholar
Hewlett, WA, Schmid, SP, Salomon, RM. Pilot trial of ondansetron in the treatment of 8 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(9):10251030.Google Scholar
Pallanti, S, Bernardi, S, Antonini, S, Singh, N, Hollander, E. Ondansetron augmentation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder who are inadequate responders to serotonin reuptake inhibitors: improvement with treatment and worsening following discontinuation. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(3):375380.Google Scholar
Toren, P, Weizman, A, Ratner, S, Cohen, D, Laor, N. Ondansetron treatment in Tourette’s disorder: a 3-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(4):499503.Google Scholar
Transcept Pharmaceuticals. Efficacy and safety study of low-dose ondansetron for adjunctive therapy in adult patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. NCT01275248; 2011. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01275248 (accessed July 13, 2018).Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Aboujaoude, E, Gamel, NN. Double-blind study of dextroamphetamine versus caffeine augmentation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70(11):15301535.Google Scholar
Perugi, G, Giannotti, D, Di Vaio, S, Frare, F, Saettoni, M, Cassano, GB. Fluvoxamine in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder (dysmorphobia). Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1996;11(4):247254.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA. An open-label study of escitalopram in body dysmorphic disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;21(3):177179.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Dwight, MM, McElroy, SL. Efficacy and safety of fluvoxamine in body dysmorphic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(4):165171.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Najjar, F. An open-label study of citalopram in body dysmorphic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(6):715720.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Albertini, RS, Rasmussen, SA. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(4):381388.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Keshaviah, A, Dougherty, DD, Stout, RL, Menard, W, Wilhelm, S. Pharmacotherapy relapse prevention in body dysmorphic disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(9):887895.Google Scholar
Rashid, H, Khan, AA, Fineberg, NA. Adjunctive antipsychotic in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder – a retrospective naturalistic case note study. Int J Psychiatry Clin Practice. 2015;19(2):8489.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Allen, A, Kwon, J, et al. Clomipramine vs desipramine crossover trial in body dysmorphic disorder: selective efficacy of a serotonin reuptake inhibitor in imagined ugliness. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(11):10331039.Google Scholar
Ipser, JC, Sander, C, Stein, DJ. Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy for body dysmorphic disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;1:CD005473.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Core Interventions in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Clinical Guideline CG31. London: NICE; 2006.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Albertini, RS, Siniscalchi, JM, Khan, A, Robinson, M. Effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a chart-review study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(9):721727.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA. Placebo-controlled study of pimozide augmentation of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(2):377379.Google Scholar
Uzun, Ӧ, Ӧzdemir, B. Aripriprazole as an augmentation agent in treatment-resistant body dysmorphic disorder. Clin Drug Investig. 2010;30(10):707710.Google Scholar
Morein-Zamir, S, Papmeyer, M, Pertusa, A, et al. The profile of executive function in OCD hoarders and hoarding disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2014;215(3):659667.Google Scholar
Saxena, S. Pharmocotherapy of compulsive hoarding. J Clin Psychol. 2011;67(5):477484.Google Scholar
Saxena, S, Brody, AL, Maidment, KM, Baxter, LR Jr. Paroxetine treatment of compulsive hoarding. J Psychiatr Res. 2007;41(6):481487.Google Scholar
Denys, D, van Megen, HJ, van der Wee, N, Westenberg, HG. A double-blind switch study of paroxetine and venlafaxine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(1):3743.Google Scholar
Denys, D, Van Nieuwerburgh, F, Deforce, D, Westenberg, HG. Prediction of response to paroxetine and venlafaxine by serotonin-related genes in obsessive-compulsive disorder in a randomized, double-blind trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(5):747753.Google Scholar
Saxena, S, Sumner, J. Venlafaxine extended-release treatment of hoarding disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014;29(5):266273.Google Scholar
Bogan, AM, Koran, LM, Chuong, HW, Vapnik, T, Bystritsky, A. Quetiapine augmentation in obsessive-compulsive disorder resistant to serotonin reuptake inhibitors: an open-label study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(1):7379.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Bender, J Jr, Morrison, S, Mehendru, R, Tolin, D, Simpson, HB. Does extended release methylphenidate help adults with hoarding disorder?: a case series. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;33(3):444447.Google Scholar
Swedo, SE, Leonard, HL, Rapoport, JL, Lenane, MC, Goldberger, EL, Cheslow, DL. A double-blind comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of trichotillomania (hair pulling). N Engl J Med. 1989;321(8):497501.Google Scholar
Swedo, SE, Lenane, MC, Leonard, HL. Long-term treatment of trichotillomania (hair pulling). N Engl J Med. 1993;329(2):141142.Google Scholar
Gadde, KM, Ryan Wagner, H 2nd, Connor, KM, Foust, MS. Escitalopram treatment of trichotillomania. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;22(1):3942.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Ringold, A, Hewlett, W. Fluoxetine for trichotillomania: an open clinical trial. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1992;28(2):145149.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Bouwer, C, Maud, CM. Use of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram in treatment of trichotillomania. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1997;247(4):234236.Google Scholar
Christenson, GA, Mackenzie, TB, Mitchell, JE, Callies, AL. A placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study of fluoxetine in trichotillomania. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(11):15661571.Google Scholar
Streichenwein, SM, Thornby, JI. A long-term, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(8):11921196.Google Scholar
Dougherty, DD, Loh, R, Jenike, MA, Keuthen, NJ. Single modality versus dual modality treatment for trichotillomania: sertraline, behavioral therapy, or both? J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(7):10861092.Google Scholar
Rothbart, R, Amos, T, Siegfried, N, et al. Pharmacotherapy for trichotillomania. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD007662.Google Scholar
Pollard, CA, Ibe, IO, Krojanker, DN, Kitchen, AD, Bronson, SS, Flynn, TM. Clomipramine treatment of trichotillomania: a follow-up report on four cases. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991;52(3):128130.Google Scholar
Ninan, PT, Rothbaum, BO, Marsteller, FA, Knight, BT, Eccard, MB. A placebo-controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and clomipramine in trichotillomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(1):4750.Google Scholar
Van Ameringen, M, Mancini, C, Patterson, B, Bennett, M, Oakman, J. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of olanzapine in the treatment of trichotillomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(10):13361343.Google Scholar
White, MP, Koran, LM. Open-label trial of aripiprazole in the treatment of trichotillomania. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;31(4):503506.Google Scholar
Stein, DJ, Hollander, E. Low-dose pimozide augmentation of serotonin reuptake blockers in the treatment of trichotillomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 1992;53(4):123126.Google Scholar
De Sousa, A. An open-label pilot study of naltrexone in childhood-onset trichotillomania. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18(1):3033.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Schreiber, LR, Kim, SW. The opiate antagonist, naltrexone, in the treatment of trichotillomania: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014;34(1):134138.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(7):756763.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Panza, KE, Grant, JE, Pittenger, C, Leckman, JF. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric trichotillomania: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(3):231240.Google Scholar
Panza, KE, Pittenger, C, Bloch, MH. Age and gender correlates of pulling in pediatric trichotillomania. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(3):241249.Google Scholar
Simeon, D, Stein, DJ, Gross, S, Islam, N, Schmeidler, J, Hollander, E. A double-blind trial of fluoxetine in pathologic skin picking. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58(8):341347.Google Scholar
Bloch, MR, Elliott, M, Thompson, H, Koran, LM. Fluoxetine in pathologic skin-picking: open-label and double-blind results. Psychosomatics. 2001;42(4):314319.Google Scholar
Arnold, LM, Mutasim, DF, Dwight, MM, Lamerson, CL, Morris, EM, McElroy, SL. An open clinical trial of fluvoxamine treatment of psychogenic excoriation. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19(1):1518.Google Scholar
Keuthen, NJ, Jameson, M, Loh, R, Deckersbach, T, Wilhelm, S, Dougherty, DD. Open-label escitalopram treatment for pathological skin picking. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;22(5):268274.Google Scholar
Arbabi, M, Farnia, V, Balighi, K, et al. Efficacy of citalopram in treatment of pathological skin picking: a randomized double blind placebo controlled trial. Acta Medica Iranica. 2008;46(5):367372.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Chamberlain, SR, Redden, SA, Leppink, EW, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of excoriation disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(5):490496.Google Scholar
Morgan, JR, Storch, EA, Woods, DW, Bodzin, D, Lewin, AB, Murphy, TK. A preliminary analysis of the phenomenology of skin-picking in Prader-Willi syndrome. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2010;41(4):448463.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. Lamotrigine treatment of pathologic skin picking: an open-label study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(9):13841391.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Chamberlain, SR, Kim, SW. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine for pathological skin picking: treatment efficacy and neurocognitive predictors of response. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(4):396403.Google Scholar
Benjamin, E, Buot-Smith, T. Naltrexone and fluoxetine in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(4):870873.Google Scholar
Brakoulias, V. The future of pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder may lie in a better understanding of its heterogeneity. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2014;15(10):13211323.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Hollander, E, Rasmussen, SA, Aronowitz, BR, Decaria, C, Goodman, WK. A severity rating scale for body dysmorphic disorder: development, reliability, and validity of a modified version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33(1):1722.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Deacon, BJ, Olatunji, BO, et al. Assessment of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: development and evaluation of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Psychol Assess. 2010;22(1):180198.Google Scholar
Keuthen, NJ, O’Sullivan, RL, Ricciardi, JN, et al. The Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) Hairpulling Scale: 1. development and factor analyses. Psychother Psychosom. 1995;64(3–4):141145.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Frost, RO, Steketee, G. A brief interview for assessing compulsive hoarding: the Hoarding Rating Scale-Interview. Psychiatry Res. 2010;178(1):147152.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Huppert, JD, Leiberg, S, et al. The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: development and validation of a short version. Psychol Assess. 2002;14(4):485496.Google Scholar
Winchel, RM, Jones, JS, Molcho, A, Parsons, B, Stanley, B, Stanley, M. The Psychiatric Institute Trichotillomania Scale (PITS). Psychopharmacol Bull. 1992;28(4):463476.Google Scholar
Frost, RO, Steketee, G, Grisham, J. Measurement of compulsive hoarding: saving inventory-revised. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42(10):11631182.Google Scholar
Keuthen, NJ, Wilhelm, S, Deckersbach, T, et al. The Skin Picking Scale: scale construction and psychometric analyses. J Psychosom Res. 2001;50(6):337341.Google Scholar
Stanley, MA, Breckenridge, JK, Snyder, AG, Novy, DM. Clinician-rated measures of hair pulling: a preliminary psychometric evaluation. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 1999;21(2):157170.Google Scholar
Stanley, MA, Prather, RC, Wagner, AL, Davis, ML, Swann, AC. Can the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale be used to assess trichotillomania? A preliminary report. Behav Res Ther. 1993;31(2):171177.Google Scholar
Rosario-Campos, MC, Miguel, EC, Quatrano, S, et al. The Dimensional Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (DY-BOCS): an instrument for assessing obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(5):495504.Google Scholar
LeBeau, RT, Mischel, ER, Simpson, HB, et al. Preliminary assessment of obsessive–compulsive spectrum disorder scales for DSM-5. J Obsessive-Compuls Relat Disord. 2013;2(2):114118.Google Scholar

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: APA; 1980.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Saxena, S, Zohar, J, Craig, KJ. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: boundary issues. In: Hollander, E, Zohar, J, Sirovatka, PJ, Regier, DA, eds. Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2011:132.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Jacoby, RJ. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: a critical review of the new diagnostic class. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2015;11:165186.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Friedberg, JP, Wasserman, S, Yeh, C-C, Iyengar, R. The case for the OCDspectrum. In: Abramowitz, JS, Houts, AC, eds. Concepts and Controversies in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. New York, NY: Springer; 2005:95118.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, PM. Understanding and treating obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 1999;37(Suppl 1):S29S52.Google Scholar
Rachman, SJ. A cognitive theory of compulsive checking. Behav Res Ther. 2002;40:624639.Google Scholar
Meyer, V. Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals. Behav Res Ther. 1966;4:273280.Google Scholar
Meyer, V, Levy, R, Schnurer, A. The behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders. In: Beech, HR, ed. Obsessional States. London: Methuen; 1974:233258.Google Scholar
Craske, MG, Kircanski, K, Zelikowsky, M, Mystkowski, J, Chowdhury, N, Baker, A. Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy. Behav Res Ther. 2008;46:527.Google Scholar
Bouton, ME. Context, ambiguity, and unlearning: sources of relapse after behavioral extinction. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;52:976986.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Davis, ML, Powers, MB, Smits, JAJ. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of treatment outcome and moderators. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47:3341.Google Scholar
Franklin, ME, Abramowitz, JS, Kozak, MJ, Levitt, JT, Foa, EB. Effectiveness of exposure and ritual prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized compared with nonrandomized samples. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68:594602.Google Scholar
Romanelli, RJ, Wu, FM, Gamba, R, Mojtabai, R, Segal, JB. Behavioral therapy and serotonin reuptake inhibitor pharmacotherapy in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of head-to-head randomized controlled trials. Depress Anxiety. 2014; 31(8):64152.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Hanna, GL, Hollander, E, Nestadt, G, Simpson, HB, American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(7 Suppl):553.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Core Interventions in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Clinical Guideline CG31. London: NICE; 2005.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA, Wilhelm, S, Koran, LM, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: some key issues for DSM-V. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:573591.Google Scholar
Veale, D, Riley, S. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the ugliest of them all? The psychopathology of mirror gazing in body dysmorphic disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2001;39:13811393.Google Scholar
Windheim, K, Veale, D, Anson, M. Mirror gazing in body dysmorphic disorder and healthy controls: effects of duration of gazing. Behav Res Ther. 2011;49:555564.Google Scholar
Neziroglu, F, Roberts, M, Yaryura-Tobias, JA. A behavioral model for body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatr Ann. 2004;34:915920.Google Scholar
Mowrer, OH. On the dual nature of learning – a re-interpretation of “conditioning” and “problem-solving.” Harv Educ Rev. 1947;17:102148.Google Scholar
Neziroglu, F, Khemlani-Patel, S, Jacofsky, M. Body dysmorphic disorder: symptoms, models and treatment interventions. In: Simos, G, ed. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: A Guide for the Practising Clinician. New York: Routledge; 2009:243260.Google Scholar
Veale, D. Advances in a cognitive behavioural model of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2004;1:113125.Google Scholar
Neziroglu, F, Khemlani-Patel, S. Therapeutic approaches to body dysmorphic disorder. Brief Treat Crisis Interv. 2003 1;3:307.Google Scholar
Cororve, MB, Gleaves, DH. Body dysmorphic disorder: a review of conceptualizations, assessment, and treatment strategies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2001;21:949970.Google Scholar
Wilhelm, S, Phillips, KA, Didie, E, et al. Modular cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Behav Ther. 2014;45:314327.Google Scholar
Williams, J, Hadjistavropoulos, T, Sharpe, D. A meta-analysis of psychological and pharmacological treatments for body dysmorphic disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:99111.Google Scholar
Christenson, GA, Ristvedt, SL, Mackenzie, TB. Identification of trichotillomania cue profiles. Behav Res Ther. 1993;31:315320.Google Scholar
Stanley, MA, Swann, AC, Bowers, TC, Davis, ML, Taylor, DJ. A comparison of clinical features in trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 1992;30:3944.Google Scholar
Flessner, CA, Conelea, CA, Woods, DW, Franklin, ME, Keuthen, NJ, Cashin, SE. Styles of pulling in trichotillomania: exploring differences in symptom severity, phenomenology, and functional impact. Behav Res Ther. 2008;46:345357.Google Scholar
Arnold, LM, Auchenbach, MB, McElroy, SL. Psychogenic excoriation: clinical features, proposed diagnostic criteria, epidemiology and approaches to treatment. CNS Drugs. 2001;15:351359.Google Scholar
Neziroglu, F, Rabinowitz, D, Breytman, A, Jacofsky, M. Skin picking phenomenology and severity comparison. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;10:306312.Google Scholar
Snorrason, I, Smári, J, Olafsson, RP. Emotion regulation in pathological skin picking: findings from a non-treatment seeking sample. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2010;41:238245.Google Scholar
Keuthen, NJ, Deckersbach, T, Wilhelm, S, et al. Repetitive skin-picking in a student population and comparison with a sample of self-injurious skin-pickers. Psychosomatics. 2000;41:210215.Google Scholar
Lochner, C, Simeon, D, Niehaus, DJH, Stein, DJ. Trichotillomania and skin-picking: a phenomenological comparison. Depress Anxiety. 2002;15:8386.Google Scholar
Elliott, AJ, Fuqua, RW. Trichotillomania: conceptualization, measurement, and treatment. Behav Ther. 2000;31:529545.Google Scholar
Flessner, CA, Penzel, F, Trichotillomania Learning Center–Scientific Advisory Board; Keuthen, NJ. Current treatment practices for children and adults with trichotillomania: consensus among experts. Cogn Behav Pr. 2010;17:290300.Google Scholar
Coles, ME, Frost, RO, Heimberg, RG, Steketee, GS. Hoarding behaviors in a large college sample. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41:179194.Google Scholar
Wheaton, MG, Abramowitz, JS, Fabricant, LE, Berman, NC, Franklin, JC. Is hoarding a symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder? Int J Cogn Ther. 2011;4:225238.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Frost, RO, Pertusa, A, et al. Hoarding disorder: a new diagnosis for DSM-V? Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:556572.Google Scholar
Frost, RO, Tolin, DF. Compulsive hoarding. In: Abramowitz, JS, McKay, D, Taylor, S, eds. Clinical Handbook of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Related Problems. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2008:7694.Google Scholar
Rachman, SJ, Elliott, CM, Shafran, R, Radomsky, AS. Separating hoarding from OCD. Behav Res Ther. 2009;47:520522.Google Scholar
Frost, RO, Hartl, TL. A cognitive-behavioral model of compulsive hoarding. Behav Res Ther. 1996;34:341350.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Mendlowicz, MV, Soares, ID, Versiani, M. Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and hoarding symptoms: a distinctive clinical subtype? Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45:375383.Google Scholar
Steketee, G, Frost, R. Compulsive hoarding: current status of the research. Clin Psychol Rev. 2003;23:905927.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Franklin, ME, Schwartz, SA, Furr, JM. Symptom presentation and outcome of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2003;71:10491057.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Wheaton, MG, Storch, EA. The status of hoarding as a symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2008;46:10261033.Google Scholar
McKay, D, Abramowitz, JS, Calamari, JE, et al. A critical evaluation of obsessive-compulsive disorder subtypes: symptoms versus mechanisms. Clin Psychol Rev. 2004;24:283313.Google Scholar
Kozak, MJ, Foa, EB. Mastery of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach Therapist Guide. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1997.Google Scholar
Frost, RO, Steketee, G, Williams, LF, Warren, R. Mood, personality disorder symptoms and disability in obsessive compulsive hoarders: a comparison with clinical and nonclinical controls. Behav Res Ther. 2000 1;38:10711081.Google Scholar
Steketee, G, Frost, RO. Compulsive Hoarding and Acquiring. Oxford University Press; 2006.Google Scholar
Rachman, SJ, Hodgson, RJ. Obsessions and Compulsions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1980.Google Scholar
Whitaker, R. Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America. New York, NY: Broadway Books; 2011.Google Scholar
Azrin, NH, Nunn, RG. Habit-reversal: a method of eliminating nervous habits and tics. Behav Res Ther. 1973;11:619628.Google Scholar
Odlaug, BL, Grant, JE. Pathological skin picking. In: Grant, JE, Stein, DJ, Woods, DW, Keuthen, NJ, eds. Trichotillomania, Skin Picking, and Other Body-Focused Repetitive Behaviors. Washington, DC: APA; 2012:2141.Google Scholar
Barlow, DH. Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders: A Step-by-Step Treatment Manual, 5th ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2007.Google Scholar
Otto, MW, Jones, JC, Barlow, DH, Craske, MG. Stopping Anxiety Medication: Panic Control Therapy for Benzodiazepine Discontinuation, Therapist Guide. Oxford University Press; 2004.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Rothbaum, BO. Treating the Trauma of Rape: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2001.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS, Deacon, BJ. Reply to Hollander et al. the OC spectrum: a closer look at the arguments and the data. In: Abramowitz, JS, Houts, AC, eds. Concepts and Controversies in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. New York, NY: Springer; 2005:141149.Google Scholar
Deacon, BJ. The biomedical model of mental disorder: a critical analysis of its validity, utility, and effects on psychotherapy research. Clin Psychol Rev. 2013;33:846861.Google Scholar
Wolpe, J. The Practice of Behavior Therapy, 2nd ed. Oxford: Pergamon; 1973.Google Scholar

References

Emmelkamp, PMG. Commentary on treatment. In: Frost, RO, Steketee, G, eds. Cognitive Approaches to Obsessions and Compulsions: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment. Oxford: Elsevier Science; 2002;461–463.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, JS. Does cognitive-behavioral therapy cure obsessive-compulsive disorder? A meta-analytic evaluation of clinical significance. Behav Ther. 1998;29:339355.Google Scholar
Stanley, MA, Turner, SM. Current status of pharmacological and behavioural treatment of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behav Ther. 1995;26:163186.Google Scholar
Whittal, ML, Thordarson, DS, McLean, PD. Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: cognitive behavior therapy vs. exposure and response prevention. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:15591576.Google Scholar
Franklin, ME, Abramowitz, JS, Kozak, MJ, Levitt, JT, Foa, EB. Effectiveness of exposure and ritual prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized compared with nonrandomized samples. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68:594602.Google Scholar
Frost, R, Steketee, G. Cognitive Approaches to Obsessions and Compulsions: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment. Oxford: Elsevier Science; 2002.Google Scholar
Jacoby, RJ, Abramowitz, JS. Inhibitory learning approaches to exposure therapy: a critical review and translation to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;49:2840.Google Scholar
Craske, MG, Treanor, M, Conway, CC, Zbozinek, T, Vervliet, B. Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behav Res Ther. 2014;58:1023.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. Disorder-specific genetic factors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2016;3:325332.Google Scholar
Anholt, G, Kalanthroff, E. Do we need a cognitive theory for obsessive-compulsive disorder? Clin Neuropsychiatry J Treat Eval. 2014;11:194196.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. Cognitive assessment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 1997;35:667681.Google Scholar
O’Connor, K. Intrusions and inferences in obsessive compulsive disorder. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2002;9(1):3846.Google Scholar
Meyer, V. Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals. Behav Res Ther. 1966;4:273280.Google Scholar
Riskind, JH. Looming vulnerability to threat: a cognitive paradigm for anxiety. Behav Res Ther. 1997;35(8):685702.Google Scholar
Rachman, S, Radomsky, AS, Elliott, CM, Zysk, E. Mental contamination: the perpetrator effect. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2012;43(1):587593.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, PM. Obsessional-compulsive problems: a cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behav Res Ther. 1985;23(5):571583.Google Scholar
Clark, DA, Beck, AT, Brown, G. Cognitive mediation in general psychiatric outpatients: a test of the content-specificity hypothesis. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989;56:958964.Google Scholar
Clark, DM. Cognitive mediation of panic attacks induced by biological challenge tests. Adv Behav Res Ther. 1993;15(1):7584.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. Psychometric validation of the Obsessive Belief Questionnaire and Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory – Part 2: factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:15271542.Google Scholar
Calamari, JE, Cohen, RJ, Rector, NA, Szacun-Shimizu, K, Reimann, BC, Norberg, MM. Dysfunctional belief-based obsessive-compulsive disorder subgroups. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:13471360.Google Scholar
Polman, A, O’Connor, K, Huisman, M. Dysfunctional belief-based subgroups and inferential confusion in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Pers Individ Diff. 2011;50:153158.Google Scholar
Taylor, S, Abramovitch, JS, Makay, D. Do dysfunctional beliefs play a role in all type of obsessive compulsive disorder? J Anxiety Disord. 2006;20:216228.Google Scholar
Sica, C, Cosadeschi, D, Sanavio, E. A study of the psychometric properties of the obsessive beliefs inventory and interpretations of intrusions inventory on clinical Italian individuals. J Anxiety Disord. 2004;188:291307.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Woods, CM, Abramowitz, JS. Relationship between obsessive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Cognit Ther Res. 2003;27:657669.Google Scholar
Shams, G, Milosevic, I. A comparative study of obsessive beliefs in obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety disorder patients and a normal group. Acta Med Iran. 2015;53:301310.Google Scholar
Ratcliffe, M. Experiences of Depression: A Study in Phenomenology. Oxford University Press; 2015:318.Google Scholar
Bucarelli, B, Purdon, C. A diary study of the phenomenology and persistence of compulsions. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2015; 49(Pt B):209–215.Google Scholar
Bucarelli, B, Purdon, C. Stovechecking behaviour in people with OCD vs anxious controls. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2016;53:1724.Google Scholar
Dèttore, D, O’Connor, K. OCD and cognitive illusions. Cognit Ther Res. 2012;37(1):109121.Google Scholar
Keen, N, Brown, GP, Wheatley, J. Obsessive compulsive symptoms and the simulation of future negative events. Br J Clin Psychol. 2008;47:265279.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D, Tversky, K. The simulation heuristic. In: Kahnman, D, Tversky, K, eds. Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1982:201208.Google Scholar
Keen, N, Brown, G, Wheatley, J. Obsessive compulsive symptoms and the simulation of future negative events. Br J Clin Psychol. 2008;47:265279.Google Scholar
O’Connor, K, Aardema, F. Living in a bubble: dissociation, relational consciousness, and obsessive compulsive disorder. J Consciousness Stud. 2012;19(7–8):216246.Google Scholar
Aardema, F, Johansson, P, Hall, L, Paradisis, S, Zidana, M, Roberts S. Choice blindness, confabulatory introspection and obsessive compulsive symptoms: a new area of investigation. Int J Cognit Ther. 2014;7:88102.Google Scholar
Abramovitch, A, Abramowitz, JS, Mittelman, A. The neuropsychology of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2013;33:11631171.Google Scholar
Hermans, D, Martens, K, De Cort, K, Pieters, G, Eelen, P. Reality monitoring and metacognitive beliefs related to cognitive confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41:383401.Google Scholar
Hermans, D, Engelen, U, Grouwels, L, Joos, E, Lemmens, J, Pieters, G. Cognitive confidence in obsessive-compulsive disorder: distrusting perception, attention and memory. Behav Res Ther. 2008;46:98113.Google Scholar
García-Montes, JM, Pérez-Álvarez, M, Balbuena, CS, Garcelán, SP, Cangas, AJ. Metacognitions in patients with hallucinations and obsessive-compulsive disorder: the superstition factor. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(8):10911104.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Peters, MJ, Larøi, F, Lincoln, TM. Metacognitive beliefs in obsessive-compulsive patients: a comparison with healthy and schizophrenia participants. Cogn Neuropsychiatry. 2010;15:531548.Google Scholar
Barahmand, U. Meta-cognitive profiles in anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2009;169:240243.Google Scholar
Cartwright-Hatton, S, Wells, A. Beliefs about worry and intrusions: the Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire and its correlates. J Anxiety Disord. 1997;11:279296.Google Scholar
van den Hout, M, Kindt, M. Repeated checking causes memory distrust. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41:301316.Google Scholar
Radomsky, AS, Gilchrist, PT, Dussault, D. Repeated checking really does cause memory distrust. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:305316.Google Scholar
Dek, EC, van den Hout, MA, Engelhard, IM, Giele, CL, Cath, DC. Perseveration causes automatization of checking behavior in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2015;71:19.Google Scholar
Ashbaugh, AR, Radomsky, AS. Attentional focus during repeated checking influences memory but not metamemory. Cognit Ther Res. 2007;31:291306.Google Scholar
Harkin, B, Kessler, K. How checking breeds doubt: reduced performance in a simple working memory task. Behav Res Ther. 2009;47:504512.Google Scholar
Giele, C, Van Den, Hout, Engelhard, I, Elaine, C., Dek, C, Hopfmeier, F. Obsessive compulsive like reasoning makes an unlikely catastrophe. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2011;42:293297.Google Scholar
Sarbin, TR. Believed in imaginings: a narrative approach. In: de Rivera, J, Sarbin, TR, eds. Believed In Imaginings: The Narrative Construction of Reality. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1998.Google Scholar
White, M, Epston, D. Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends. New York, NY: Norton; 1990.Google Scholar
O’Connor, K, Aardema, F, Bouthillier, D, et al. Evaluation of an inference-based approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognit Behav Ther. 2005;34:148163.Google Scholar
Aardema, F, O’Connor, K. Dissolving the tenacity of obsessional doubt: implications for treatment outcome. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2012;43:855861.Google Scholar
Julien, D, O’Connor, KP, Aardema, F. The inference-based approach to obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review of its etiological model, treatment efficacy, and model of change. J Affect Disord. 2016;202:187196.Google Scholar
Visser, H, Van Megen, H, Van Oppen, P. The effectiveness of the inference based approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor insight: results of a randomized multicentre trial. Psychother Psychosom. 2015;84:284293.Google Scholar
Aardema, F, O’Connor, KP, Delorme, ME, Audet, JS. The inference-based approach (IBA) to the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open trial across symptom subtypes and treatment-resistant cases. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2017;24(2):289301.Google Scholar
van Niekerk, J, Brown, G, Aardema, F, O’Connor, K. Integration of inference-based therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder – a case series. Int J Cognit Ther. 2014;7(1):6782.Google Scholar
Mahoney, MJ. Constructive Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2006.Google Scholar
O’Connor, K. A Constructionist Clinical Psychology for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Abingdon: Routledge; 2015.Google Scholar
Taillon, A, O’Connor, K, Dupuis, G, Lavoie, M. Inference-based therapy for body dysmorphic disorder. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2013;20:6776.Google Scholar
Purcell-Lalonde, M, O’Connor, K, Aardema, F, Coelho, JS. Food for thought: ego-dystonicity and fear of self in eating disorders. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2015;23:179184.Google Scholar
Aardema, F, O’Connor, K, Emmelkamp, P, Marchand, A, Todorov, C. Inferential confusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Inferential Confusion Questionnaire. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:293308.Google Scholar
O’Connor, KP: Cognitive and meta-cognitive dimensions of psychoses. Can J Psychiatry. 54(3): 152–159, 2009.Google Scholar
Blais, M, Bodryzlova, Y, Aardema, F, O’Connor, K. Open trial of inference-based therapy in the treatment of compulsive hoarding. J Psychol Clin Psychiatry. 2016;6:403.Google Scholar
Farrell, C, Shafran, R, Fairburn, CG. Body size estimation: testing a new mirror-based assessment method. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;34:162171.Google Scholar
Cash, TF, Deagle, EA. The nature and extent of body-image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: a meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 1997;22:107126.Google Scholar
Davenport, E, Rushford, N, Soon, S, McDermott, C. Dysfunctional metacognition and drive for thinness in typical and atypical anorexia nervosa. J Eat Disord. 2015;3:1.Google Scholar

References

Bandelow, B, Zohar, J, Hollander, E, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disorders – first revision. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2008;9(4):248312.Google Scholar
Hollander, E, Allen, A, Kwon, J, et al. Clomipramine vs desipramine crossover trial in body dysmorphic disorder: selective efficacy of a serotonin reuptake inhibitor in imagined ugliness. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(11):10331039.Google Scholar
Johnson, J, El-Alfy, AT. Review of available studies of the neurobiology and pharmacotherapeutic management of trichotillomania. J Adv Res. 2016;7(2):169184.Google Scholar
Brakoulias, V, Eslick, GD, Starcevic, V. A meta-analysis of the response of pathological hoarding to pharmacotherapy. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229(1–2):272276.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Fernández de la Cruz, L, Nordsletten, AE, Lenhard, F, Isomura, K, Simpson, HB. Towards an international expert consensus for defining treatment response, remission, recovery and relapse in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World Psychiatry. 2016;15(1):8081.Google Scholar
Belotto-Silva, C, Diniz, JB, Malavazzi, DM, et al. Group cognitive-behavioral therapy versus selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a practical clinical trial. J Anxiety Disord. 2012;26(1):2531.Google Scholar
Diniz, JB, Shavitt, RG, Fossaluza, V, Koran, L, de Braganca Pereira, CA, Miguel, EC. A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of fluoxetine plus quetiapine or clomipramine versus fluoxetine plus placebo for obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;31(6):763768.Google Scholar
Jakubovski, E, Diniz, JB, Valério, C, et al. Clinical predictors of long-term outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(8):763772.Google Scholar
Costa, DL, Diniz, JB, Miguel, EC. How similar are the disorders included under the umbrella of obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders? JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(8):877.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Simpson, HB, Liebowitz, MR, et al. Six-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment with exposure and ritual prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(5):464469.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy vs risperidone for augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013; 70(11):11901199.Google Scholar
Keuthen, NJ, Tung, ES, Reese, HE, Raikes, J, Lee, L, Mansueto, CS. Getting the word out: cognitive-behavioral therapy for trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder) and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2015;27(1):1015.Google Scholar
Williams, M, Viscusi, JA. Hoarding disorder and a systematic review of treatment with cognitive behavioral therapy. Cogn Behav Ther. 2016;45(2):93110.Google Scholar
Pampaloni, I, Sivakumaran, T, Hawley, C, et al. High-dose selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in OCD: a systematic retrospective case notes survey. J Psychopharmacol. 2010; 24(10):14391445.Google Scholar
Math, S, Janardhan, Reddy Y. Issues in the pharmacological treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61(7):11881197.Google Scholar
Simeon, J, Thatte, S, Wiggins, D. Treatment of adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder with a clomipramine-fluoxetine combination. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1990;26(3):285290.Google Scholar
Browne, M, Horn, E, Jones, T. The benefits of clomipramine-fluoxetine combination in obsessive compulsive disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 1993;38(4):242243.Google Scholar
Diniz, JB, Shavitt, RG, Pereira, CAB, et al. Quetiapine versus clomipramine in the augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, open-label trial. J Psychopharmacol. 2010;24(3):297307.Google Scholar
Ravizza, L, Barzega, G, Bellino, S, Bogetto, F, Maina, G. Drug treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): long-term trial with clomipramine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Psychopharmacol Bull. 1996;32(1):167173.Google Scholar
Pallanti, S, Quercioli, L, Paiva, R, Koran, L. Citalopram for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 1999;14(2):101106.Google Scholar
Marazziti, D, Golia, F, Consoli, G, et al. Effectiveness of long-term augmentation with citalopram to clomipramine in treatment-resistant OCD patients. CNS Spectr. 2008;13(11):971976.Google Scholar
Andrade, C. Augmenting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors with clomipramine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: benefits and risks. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(12):e1128e1133.Google Scholar
Diniz, JB, Costa, DL, Cassab, RC, Pereira, CA, Miguel, EC, Shavitt, RG. The impact of comorbid body dysmorphic disorder on the response to sequential pharmacological trials for obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2013;28(6):603611.Google Scholar
Trivedi, MH, Fava, M, Wisniewski, SR, et al. Medication augmentation after the failure of SSRIs for depression. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(12):12431252.Google Scholar
Alevizos, B, Lykouras, L, Zervas, I, Christodoulou, G. Risperidone-induced obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a series of six cases. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;22(5):461467.Google Scholar
Alevizos, B, Papageorgiou, C, Christodoulou, G. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms with olanzapine. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;7(3):375377.Google Scholar
Ercan, ES, Ardic, UA, Ercan, E, Yuce, D, Durak, S. A promising preliminary study of aripiprazole for treatment-resistant childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25(7):580584.Google Scholar
Bloch, M, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Kelmendi, B, Coric, V, Bracken, M, Leckman, J. A systematic review: antipsychotic augmentation with treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(7):622632.Google Scholar
Albert, U, Carmassi, C, Cosci, F, et al. Role and clinical implications of atypical antipsychotics in anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, trauma-related, and somatic symptom disorders: a systematized review. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016;31(5):249258.Google Scholar
Kim, C, Koo, M, Cheon, K, Ryu, Y, Lee, J, Lee, H. Dopamine transporter density of basal ganglia assessed with [123I]IPT SPET in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2003;30(12):16371643.Google Scholar
van der Wee, N, Stevens, H, Hardeman, J, et al. Enhanced dopamine transporter density in psychotropic-naive patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder shown by [123I]{beta}-CIT SPECT. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161(12):22012206.Google Scholar
Cheon, KA, Ryu, YH, Namkoong, K, Kim, CH, Kim, JJ, Lee, JD. Dopamine transporter density of the basal ganglia assessed with [123I]IPT SPECT in drug-naïve children with Tourette’s disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2004;130(1):8595.Google Scholar
Winogrodzka, A, Bergmans, P, Booij, J, van Royen, EA, Stoof, JC, Wolters, EC. [(123)I]beta-CIT SPECT is a useful method for monitoring dopaminergic degeneration in early stage Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74(3):294298.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, B, Altamura, AC, Allen, A, Marazziti, D, Hollander, E. Epidemiologic and clinical updates on impulse control disorders: a critical review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;256(8):464475.Google Scholar
Denys, D, Klompmakers, A, Westenberg, H. Synergistic dopamine increase in the rat prefrontal cortex with the combination of quetiapine and fluvoxamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2004;176(2):195203.Google Scholar
Zhang, W, Perry, K, Wong, D, et al. Synergistic effects of olanzapine and other antipsychotic agents in combination with fluoxetine on norepinephrine and dopamine release in rat prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000;23(3):250262.Google Scholar
McDougle, C, Goodman, W, Leckman, J, Lee, N, Heninger, G, Price, L. Haloperidol addition in fluvoxamine-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study in patients with and without tics. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(4):302308.Google Scholar
McDougle, C, Goodman, W, Price, L, et al. Neuroleptic addition in fluvoxamine-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147(5):652654.Google Scholar
Srour, M, Lespérance, P, Richer, F, Chouinard, S. Psychopharmacology of tic disorders. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;17(3):150159.Google Scholar
Van Ameringen, M, Mancini, C, Oakman, JM, Farvolden, P. The potential role of haloperidol in the treatment of trichotillomania. J Affect Disord. 1999;56(2–3):219226.Google Scholar
Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, Kasper, S. Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an update meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;18(9) pii: pyv047.Google Scholar
Van Ameringen, M, Mancini, C, Patterson, B, Bennett, M, Oakman, J. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of olanzapine in the treatment of trichotillomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(10):13361343.Google Scholar
Rothbart, R, Stein, DJ. Pharmacotherapy of trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder): an updated systematic review. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2014;15(18):27092719.Google Scholar
Turner, GA, Sutton, S, Sharma, A. Augmentation of venlafaxine with aripiprazole in a case of treatment-resistant excoriation disorder. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2014;11(1–2):2931.Google Scholar
Luca, M, Vecchio, C, Luca, A, Calandra, C. Haloperidol augmentation of fluvoxamine in skin picking disorder: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2012;6:219.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA. Placebo-controlled study of pimozide augmentation of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(2):377379.Google Scholar
Phillips, KA. Olanzapine augmentation of fluoxetine in body dysmorphic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(5):10221023.Google Scholar
Nakaaki, S, Murata, Y, Furukawa, TA. Efficacy of olanzapine augmentation of paroxetine therapy in patients with severe body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008;62(3):370.Google Scholar
Matsunaga, H, Nagata, T, Hayashida, K, Ohya, K, Kiriike, N, Stein, D. A long-term trial of the effectiveness and safety of atypical antipsychotic agents in augmenting SSRI-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70(6):863868.Google Scholar
Cortese, B, Phan, K. The role of glutamate in anxiety and related disorders. CNS Spectr. 2005;10(10):820830.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S, Chakraborty, K. Glutamatergic dysfunction: newer targets for anti-obsessional drugs. Recent Pat CNS Drug Discov. 2007;2(1):4755.Google Scholar
Stewart, S, Fagerness, J, Platko, J, et al. Association of the SLC1A1 glutamate transporter gene and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007;144B(8):10271033.Google Scholar
Qin, H, Samuels, JF, Wang, Y, et al. Whole-genome association analysis of treatment response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(2):270276.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C. Glutamate modulators in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(6):308315.Google Scholar
Afshar, H, Roohafza, H, Mohammad-Beigi, H, et al. N-acetylcysteine add-on treatment in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(6):797803.Google Scholar
Paydary, K, Akamaloo, A, Ahmadipour, A, Pishgar, F, Emamzadehfard, S, Akhondzadeh, S. N-acetylcysteine augmentation therapy for moderate-to-severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2016;41(2):214219.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Oliver, G, Camfield, DA, et al. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 16-week, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. CNS Drugs. 2015;29(9):801809.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(7):756763.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Chamberlain, SR, Redden, SA, Leppink, EW, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of excoriation disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(5):490496.Google Scholar
Donegan, S, Dixon, P, Hemming, K, Tudur-Smith, C, Marson, A. A systematic review of placebo-controlled trials of topiramate: how useful is a multiple-indications review for evaluating the adverse events of an antiepileptic drug? Epilepsia. 2015;56(12):19101920.Google Scholar
Shank, RP, Gardocki, JF, Streeter, AJ, Maryanoff, BE. An overview of the preclinical aspects of topiramate: pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and mechanism of action. Epilepsia. 2000;41 Suppl 1:S3S9.Google Scholar
Berlin, H, Koran, L, Jenike, M, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(5):716721.Google Scholar
Jankovic, J, Jimenez-Shahed, J, Brown, LW. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in the treatment of Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81(1):7073.Google Scholar
Lochner, C, Seedat, S, Niehaus, DJ, Stein, DJ. Topiramate in the treatment of trichotillomania: an open-label pilot study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;21(5):255259.Google Scholar
Jafferany, M, Osuagwu, FC. Use of topiramate in skin-picking disorder: a pilot study. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2017;19(1): doi: 10.4088/PCC.16m01961.Google Scholar
Jafferany, M, Shireen, F, Ibrahim, A. An open-label trial of topiramate in the treatment of skin picking in pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;12(2): pii: PCC.09l00829.Google Scholar
Katoh-Semba, R, Asano, T, Ueda, H, et al. Riluzole enhances expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor with consequent proliferation of granule precursor cells in the rat hippocampus. FASEB J. 2002;16(10):13281330.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Bloch, MH, Wasylink, S, et al. Riluzole augmentation in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a pilot randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(8):10751084.Google Scholar
Emamzadehfard, S, Kamaloo, A, Paydary, K, et al. Riluzole in augmentation of fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;70(8):332341.Google Scholar
Grant, PJ, Joseph, LA, Farmer, CA, et al. 12-week, placebo-controlled trial of add-on riluzole in the treatment of childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014;39(6):14531459.Google Scholar
Lemmon, ME, Grados, M, Kline, T, Thompson, CB, Ali, SF, Singer, HS. Efficacy of glutamate modulators in tic suppression: a double-blind, randomized control trial of d-serine and riluzole in Tourette syndrome. Pediatr Neurol. 2015;52(6):629634.Google Scholar
Coric, V, Kelmendi, B, Pittenger, C, Wasylink, S, Bloch, MH, Green, J. Beneficial effects of the antiglutamatergic agent riluzole in a patient diagnosed with trichotillomania. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(1):170171.Google Scholar
Sasso, DA, Kalanithi, PS, Trueblood, KV, et al. Beneficial effects of the glutamate-modulating agent riluzole on disordered eating and pathological skin-picking behaviors. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26(6):685687.Google Scholar
Reid, JG, Gitlin, MJ, Altshuler, LL. Lamotrigine in psychiatric disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(7):675684.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Micò, U, Pandolfo, G, et al. Lamotrigine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Psychopharmacol. 2012;26(11):14561462.Google Scholar
Bloom, R, Amber, KT. Identifying the incidence of rash, Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in patients taking lamotrigine: a systematic review of 122 randomized controlled trials. An Bras Dermatol. 2017;92(1):139141.Google Scholar
Plosker, GL, Lyseng-Williamson, KA. Memantine: a pharmacoeconomic review of its use in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s disease. Pharmacoeconomics. 2005;23(2):193206.Google Scholar
Ghaleiha, A, Entezari, N, Modabbernia, A, et al. Memantine add-on in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(2):175180.Google Scholar
Bartoli, F, Riboldi, I, Crocamo, C, Di Brita, C, Clerici, M, Carrà, G. Ketamine as a rapid-acting agent for suicidal ideation: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;77:232236.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Kegeles, LS, Levinson, A, et al. Randomized controlled crossover trial of ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: proof-of-concept. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(12):24752483.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Wheaton, M, Zwerling, J, et al. Can exposure-based CBT extend the effects of intravenous ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder? an open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(3):408409.Google Scholar
Andrade, C. Ondansetron augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors as a treatment strategy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(1):e72e75.Google Scholar
Askari, N, Moin, M, Sanati, M, et al. Granisetron adjunct to fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CNS Drugs. 2012;26(10):883892.Google Scholar
Shalbafan, M, Mohammadinejad, P, Shariat, SV, et al. Celecoxib as an adjuvant to fluvoxamine in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2015;48(4–5):136140.Google Scholar
Koran, L, Aboujaoude, E, Bullock, K, Franz, B, Gamel, N, Elliott, M. Double-blind treatment with oral morphine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(3):353359.Google Scholar
Hamon, M, Blier, P. Monoamine neurocircuitry in depression and strategies for new treatments. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013;45:5463.Google Scholar
Kennedy, SH, Rizvi, SJ. Emerging drugs for major depressive disorder. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2009;14(3):439453.Google Scholar
Grados, M, Prazak, M, Saif, A, Halls, A. A review of animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a focus on developmental, immune, endocrine and behavioral models. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2016;11(1):2743.Google Scholar
Cobb, J. Behaviour therapy in phobic and obsessional disorders. Psychiatr Dev. 1983;1(4):351365.Google Scholar
Manos, RC, Cahill, SP, Wetterneck, CT, Conelea, CA, Ross, AR, Riemann, BC. The impact of experiential avoidance and obsessive beliefs on obsessive-compulsive symptoms in a severe clinical sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2010;24(7):700708.Google Scholar
Katz, D, Rector, NA, Laposa, JM. The interaction of distress tolerance and intolerance of uncertainty in the prediction of symptom reduction across CBT for social anxiety disorder. Cogn Behav Ther. 2017:119.Google Scholar
Costa, DLDC, Barbosa, VS, Requena, G, Shavitt, RG, Pereira, CAB, Diniz, JB. Dissecting the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale severity scale to understand the routes for symptomatic improvement in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2017:31(10):13121322.Google Scholar
Conceição, CDL, Chagas, AM, Arzeno, FY, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: prevalence and clinical correlates. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(11):966975.Google Scholar
Kelly, MM, Walters, C, Phillips, KA. Social anxiety and its relationship to functional impairment in body dysmorphic disorder. Behav Ther. 2010;41(2):143153.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Bohne, A, Savage, CR, Deckersbach, T, Keuthen, NJ, Wilhelm, S. Motor inhibition in trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2008;42(2):141150.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, S, Odlaug, B, Boulougouris, V, Fineberg, N, Grant, J. Trichotillomania: neurobiology and treatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009;33(6):831842.Google Scholar
Christenson, GA, Mackenzie, TB. Trichotillomania, body dysmorphic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56(5):211212.Google Scholar
Arnold, L, Auchenbach, M, McElroy, S. Psychogenic excoriation. Clinical features, proposed diagnostic criteria, epidemiology and approaches to treatment. CNS Drugs. 2001;15(5):351359.Google Scholar
McGuire, JF, Wu, MS, Piacentini, J, McCracken, JT, Storch, EA. A meta-analysis of d-cycloserine in exposure-based treatment: moderators of treatment efficacy, response, and diagnostic remission. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(2):196206.Google Scholar
Song, C, Stevenson, CW, Guimarães, FS, Lee, JL. Bidirectional effects of cannabidiol on contextual fear memory extinction. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:493.Google Scholar
Jurkus, R, Day, HL, Guimarães, FS, Lee, JL, Bertoglio, LJ, Stevenson, CW. Cannabidiol regulation of learned fear: implications for treating anxiety-related disorders. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:454.Google Scholar
Wang, Y, Zhang, X. FAAH inhibition produces antidepressant-like efforts of mice to acute stress via synaptic long-term depression. Behav Brain Res. 2017;324:138145.Google Scholar

References

Ruscio, AM, Stein, DJ, Chiu, WT, Kessler, RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):5363.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR, Kozak, MJ, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of exposure and ritual prevention, clomipramine, and their combination in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(1):151161.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy vs risperidone for augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(11):11901199.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Huppert, JD, Petkova, E, Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR. Response versus remission in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(2):269276.Google Scholar
Marks, IM, Lelliott, P, Basoglu, M, et al. Clomipramine, self-exposure and therapist-aided exposure for obsessive-compulsive rituals. Br J Psychiatry. 1988;152(4):522534.Google Scholar
Hamilton, M. A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1960;23(1):5662.Google Scholar
Cottraux, J, Mollard, E, Bouvard, M, et al. A controlled study of fluvoxamine and exposure in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;5(1):1730.Google Scholar
Hohagen, F, Winkelmann, G, Rasche-Räuchle, H, et al. Combination of behaviour therapy with fluvoxamine in comparison with behaviour therapy and placebo: results of a multicentre study. Br J Psychiatry. 1998;(35):7178.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale: I. Development, use, and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(11):10061011.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Price, LH, Rasmussen, SA, et al. The yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale: II. Validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(11):10121016.Google Scholar
Pediatric OCD Treatment Study (POTS) Team. Cognitive-behavior therapy, sertraline, and their combination for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study (POTS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(16):19691976.Google Scholar
Scahill, L, Riddle, MA, McSwiggin-Hardin, M, et al. Children’s Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale: reliability and validity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):844852.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Maher, MJ, Wang, Y, Bao, Y, Foa, EB, Franklin, M. Patient adherence predicts outcome from cognitive behavioral therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2011;79(2):247.Google Scholar
Wheaton, MG, Galfalvy, H, Steinman, SA, Wall, MM, Foa, EB, Simpson, HB. Patient adherence and treatment outcome with exposure and response prevention for OCD: which components of adherence matter and who becomes well? Behav Res Ther. 2016;85:612.Google Scholar
Cottraux, J, Mollard, E, Bouvard, M, Marks, I. Exposure therapy, fluvoxamine, or combination treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder: one-year followup. Psychiatry Res. 1993;49(1):6375.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Liebowitz, MR, Foa, EB, et al. Post-treatment effects of exposure therapy and clomipramine in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2004;19(4):225233.Google Scholar
Patel, SR, Galfavy, H, Kimeldorf, MB, Dixon, LB, Simpson, HB. Patient preferences and acceptability of evidence-based and novel treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Serv. 2017;68(3):250257.Google Scholar
Patel, SR, Simpson, HB. Patient preferences for OCD treatment. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(11):1434.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Hanna, GL, Hollander, E, Nestadt, G, Simpson, HB. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(7):1.Google Scholar
Koran, LM, Simpson, HB. Guideline Watch (March 2013): Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
Marks, IM, Stern, RS, Mawson, D, Cobb, J, McDonald, R. Clomipramine and exposure for obsessive-compulsive rituals: I. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;136(1):125.Google Scholar
Van Balkom, AJ, De Haan, E, Van Oppen, P, Spinhoven, P, Hoogduin, KA, Van, Dyck R. Cognitive and behavioral therapies alone versus in combination with fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186(8):492499.Google Scholar
Tenneij, NH, Van, Megen HJ, Denys, DA, Westenberg, HG. Behavior therapy augments response of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder responding to drug treatment. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(9):11691175.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for augmenting pharmacotherapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(5):621630.Google Scholar
Simpson, HB, Foa, EB, Liebowitz, MR, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy vs risperidone for augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(11):11901199.Google Scholar
Bloch, M, Landeros-Weisenberger, A, Kelmendi, B, Coric, V, Bracken, MB, Leckman, JF. A systematic review: antipsychotic augmentation with treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(7):622632.Google Scholar
Komossa, K, Depping, AM, Meyer, M, Kissling, W, Leucht, S. Second-generation antipsychotics for obsessive compulsive disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(12):CD008141.Google Scholar
Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, Kasper, S. Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;16(3):557574.Google Scholar
Veale, D, Miles, S, Smallcombe, N, Ghezai, H, Goldacre, B, Hodsoll, J. Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in SSRI treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14(1):317.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Simpson, HB, Rosenfield, D, et al. Six-month outcomes from a randomized trial augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitors with exposure and ritual prevention or risperidone in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(4):440.Google Scholar
Franklin, ME, Sapyta, J, Freeman, JB, et al. Cognitive behavior therapy augmentation of pharmacotherapy in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study II (POTS II) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2011;306(11):12241232.Google Scholar
New York State Psychiatric Institute. Attaining and maintaining wellness in obsessive-compulsive disorder. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT01686087. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01686087 (accessed July 26, 2018).Google Scholar
Fanale, MA, Horwitz, SM, Forero-Torres, A, et al. Brentuximab vedotin in the front-line treatment of patients with CD30+ peripheral T-cell lymphomas: results of a phase I study. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(28):31373143.Google Scholar
Kalanthroff, E, Anholt, GE, Simpson, HB. Research domain criteria and obsessive-compulsive disorder: an oxymoron? In: Pittenger, C, ed. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Phenomenology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:609702.Google Scholar
Ledgerwood, L, Richardson, R, Cranney, J. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction of conditioned freezing. Behav Neurosci. 2003;117(2):341.Google Scholar
Walker, DL, Ressler, KJ, Lu, KT, Davis, M. Facilitation of conditioned fear extinction by systemic administration or intra-amygdala infusions of D-cycloserine as assessed with fear-potentiated startle in rats. J Neurosci. 2002;22(6):23432351.Google Scholar
Ressler, KJ, Rothbaum, BO, Tannenbaum, L, et al. Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(11):11361144.Google Scholar
Tart, CD, Handelsman, PR, DeBoer, LB, et al. Augmentation of exposure therapy with post-session administration of D-cycloserine. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(2):168174.Google Scholar
Nave, AM, Tolin, DF, Stevens, MC. Exposure therapy, D-cycloserine, and functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with snake phobia: a randomized pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73(9):11791186.Google Scholar
Otto, MW, Tolin, DF, Simon, NM, et al. Efficacy of d-cycloserine for enhancing response to cognitive-behavior therapy for panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(4):365370.Google Scholar
Siegmund, A, Golfels, F, Finck, C, et al. D-cycloserine does not improve but might slightly speed up the outcome of in-vivo exposure therapy in patients with severe agoraphobia and panic disorder in a randomized double blind clinical trial. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(8):10421047.Google Scholar
Hofmann, SG, Meuret, AE, Smits, JA, et al. Augmentation of exposure therapy with D-cycloserine for social anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(3):298304.Google Scholar
Guastella, AJ, Richardson, R, Lovibond, PF, et al. A randomized controlled trial of D-cycloserine enhancement of exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(6):544549.Google Scholar
Hofmann, SG, Smits, JA, Rosenfield, D, et al. D-Cycloserine as an augmentation strategy with cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(7):751758.Google Scholar
Sheerin, CM. Slope of Change through D-cycloserine Facilitation of Exposure Therapy in a Social Anxiety Population. Dissertation, Western Michigan University; 2013.Google Scholar
Kushner, MG, Kim, SW, Donahue, C, et al. D-cycloserine augmented exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(8):835838.Google Scholar
Wilhelm, S, Buhlmann, U, Tolin, DF, et al. Augmentation of behavior therapy with D-cycloserine for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(3):335341.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Merlo, LJ, Bengtson, M, et al. D-cycloserine does not enhance exposure–response prevention therapy in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007;22(4):230237.Google Scholar
Andersson, E, Hedman, E, Enander, J, et al. D-cycloserine vs placebo as adjunct to cognitive behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder and interaction with antidepressants: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(7):659667.Google Scholar
Farrell, LJ, Waters, AM, Boschen, MJ, et al. Difficult-to-treat pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: feasibility and preliminary results of a randomized pilot trial of D-cycloserine-augmented behavior therapy. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(8):723731.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Turner, C, Monzani, B, et al. Cognitive-behavioural therapy with post-session D-cycloserine augmentation for paediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: pilot randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204(1):7778.Google Scholar
Storch, EA, Wilhelm, S, Sprich, S, et al. Efficacy of augmentation of cognitive behavior therapy with weight-adjusted D-cycloserine vs placebo in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(8):779788.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, de la Cruz, LF, Monzani, B, et al. D-cycloserine augmentation of exposure-based cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and posttraumatic stress disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(5):501510.Google Scholar
Pittenger, C, Krystal, JH, Coric, V. Glutamate-modulating drugs as novel pharmacotherapeutic agents in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. NeuroRx. 2006;3(1):6981.Google Scholar
Carlsson, ML. On the role of prefrontal cortex glutamate for the antithetical phenomenology of obsessive compulsive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2001;25(1):526.Google Scholar
Chakrabarty, K, Bhattacharyya, S, Christopher, R, Khanna, S. Glutamatergic dysfunction in OCD. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30(9):17351740.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, DR, Hanna, GL. Genetic and imaging strategies in obsessive–compulsive disorder: potential implications for treatment development. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48(12):12101222.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, DR, MacMaster, FP, Keshavan, MS, Fitzgerald, KD, Stewart, CM, Moore, GJ. Decrease in caudate glutamatergic concentrations in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder patients taking paroxetine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(9):10961103.Google Scholar
Ting, JT, Feng, G. Glutamatergic synaptic dysfunction and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr Chem Genomics. 2008;2:6271.Google Scholar
Berman, RM, Cappiello, A, Anand, A, et al. Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47(4):351354.Google Scholar
Kishimoto, T, Chawla, JM, Hagi, K, et al. Single-dose infusion ketamine and non-ketamine N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists for unipolar and bipolar depression: a meta-analysis of efficacy, safety and time trajectories. Psychol Med. 2016;46(07):14591472.Google Scholar
Gideons, ES, Kavalali, ET, Monteggia, LM. Mechanisms underlying differential effectiveness of memantine and ketamine in rapid antidepressant responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(23):86498654.Google Scholar
Liu, RJ, Lee, FS, Li, XY, Bambico, F, Duman, RS, Aghajanian, GK. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met allele impairs basal and ketamine-stimulated synaptogenesis in prefrontal cortex. Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Jun 1;71(11):9961005.Google Scholar
Craske, MG, Treanor, M, Conway, CC, Zbozinek, T, Vervliet, B. Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behav Res Ther. 2014;58:1023.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Kegeles, LS, Levinson, A, et al. Randomized controlled crossover trial of ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: proof-of-concept. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(12):24752483.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, CI, Wheaton, M, Zwerling, J, et al. Can exposure-based CBT extend the effects of intravenous ketamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder? an open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(3):408.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, PJ, Seemann, JR, Maren, S. Can fear extinction be enhanced? A review of pharmacological and behavioral findings. Brain Res Bull. 2014;105:4660.Google Scholar
Nader, K, Hardt, O. A single standard for memory: the case for reconsolidation. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(3):224234.Google Scholar
Nader, K, Schafe, GE, Le Doux, JE. Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature. 2000;406(6797):722726.Google Scholar
Tronson, NC, Taylor, JR. Molecular mechanisms of memory reconsolidation. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;8(4):262275.Google Scholar
Soeter, M, Kindt, M. Disrupting reconsolidation: pharmacological and behavioral manipulations. Learn Mem. 2011;18(6):357366.Google Scholar
Kindt, M, Soeter, M, Vervliet, B. Beyond extinction: erasing human fear responses and preventing the return of fear. Nat Neurosci. 2009;12(3):256.Google Scholar
Soeter, M, Kindt, M. An abrupt transformation of phobic behavior after a post-retrieval amnesic agent. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78(12):880886.Google Scholar
Brunet, A, Orr, SP, Tremblay, J, Robertson, K, Nader, K, Pitman, RK. Effect of post-retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2008;42(6):503506.Google Scholar
Shiban, Y, Pauli, P, Mühlberger, A. Effect of multiple context exposure on renewal in spider phobia. Behav Res Ther. 2013;51(2):6874.Google Scholar
Vansteenwegen, D, Vervliet, B, Iberico, C, Baeyens, F, Van den, Bergh O, Hermans, D. The repeated confrontation with videotapes of spiders in multiple contexts attenuates renewal of fear in spider-anxious students. Behav Res Ther. 2007;45(6):11691179.Google Scholar
Balooch, SB, Neumann, DL, Boschen, MJ. Extinction treatment in multiple contexts attenuates ABC renewal in humans. Behav Res Ther. 2012;50(10):604609.Google Scholar
Dunsmoor, JE, Campese, VD, Ceceli, AO, LeDoux, JE, Phelps, EA. Novelty-facilitated extinction: providing a novel outcome in place of an expected threat diminishes recovery of defensive responses. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78(3):203209.Google Scholar

References

Ruscio, AM, Stein, DJ, Chiu, WT, Kessler, RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):5363.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Rosario-Campos, MC, Leckman, JF. A multidimensional model of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(2):228238.Google Scholar
Denys, D. Pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder and obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2006;29(2):553584, xi.Google Scholar
Skoog, G, Skoog, I. A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder [see commetns]. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(2):121127.Google Scholar
Saxena, S, Bota, RG, Brody, AL. Brain-behavior relationships in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2001;6(2):82101.Google Scholar
Graybiel, AM, Rauch, SL. Toward a neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuron. 2000;28(2):343347.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, van den Heuvel, OA. Common and distinct neural correlates of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2006;29(2):391410, viii.Google Scholar
Milad, MR, Rauch, SL. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: beyond segregated cortico-striatal pathways. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012;16(1):4351.Google Scholar
Rotge, JY, Guehl, D, Dilharreguy, B, et al. Provocation of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a quantitative voxel-based meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2008;33(5):405412.Google Scholar
Whiteside, SP, Port, JD, Abramowitz, JS. A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2004;132(1):6979.Google Scholar
Baxter, LR, Jr, Phelps, ME, Mazziotta, JC, Guze, BH, Schwartz, JM, Selin, CE. Local cerebral glucose metabolic rates in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A comparison with rates in unipolar depression and in normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44(3):211218.Google Scholar
Baxter, LR, Jr, Schwartz, JM, Mazziotta, JC, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145(12):15601563.Google Scholar
Breiter, HC, Rauch, SL, Kwong, KK, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53(7):595606.Google Scholar
Lucey, JV, Costa, DC, Adshead, G, et al. Brain blood flow in anxiety disorders. OCD, panic disorder with agoraphobia, and post-traumatic stress disorder on 99mTcHMPAO single photon emission tomography (SPET). Br J Psychiatry. 1997;171:346350.Google Scholar
Lucey, JV, Costa, DC, Blanes, T, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow in obsessive-compulsive disordered patients at rest. Differential correlates with obsessive-compulsive and anxious-avoidant dimensions. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;167(5):629634.Google Scholar
Martinot, JL, Allilaire, JF, Mazoyer, BM, et al. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: a clinical, neuropsychological and positron emission tomography study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1990;82(3):233242.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D, Wooderson, S, Lawrence, N, Brammer, MJ, Speckens, A, Phillips, ML. Distinct neural correlates of washing, checking, and hoarding symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(6):564576.Google Scholar
McGuire, PK, Bench, CJ, Frith, CD, Marks, IM, Frackowiak, RS, Dolan, RJ. Functional anatomy of obsessive-compulsive phenomena. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;164(4):459468.Google Scholar
Nakao, T, Nakagawa, A, Yoshiura, T, et al. Brain activation of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder during neuropsychological and symptom provocation tasks before and after symptom improvement: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(8):901910.Google Scholar
Rauch, SL, Jenike, MA, Alpert, NM, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder using oxygen 15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(1):6270.Google Scholar
Rauch, SL, Shin, LM, Dougherty, DD, Alpert, NM, Fischman, AJ, Jenike, MA. Predictors of fluvoxamine response in contamination-related obsessive compulsive disorder: a PET symptom provocation study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;27(5):782791.Google Scholar
Schienle, A, Schafer, A, Stark, R, Walter, B, Vaitl, D. Neural responses of OCD patients towards disorder-relevant, generally disgust-inducing and fear-inducing pictures. Int J Psychophysiol. 2005;57(1):6977.Google Scholar
Shin, YW, Kwon, JS, Kim, JJ, et al. Altered neural circuit for working memory before and after symptom provocation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2006;113(5):420429.Google Scholar
Swedo, SE, Schapiro, MB, Grady, CL, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(6):518523.Google Scholar
Baxter, LR, Jr, Schwartz, JM, Bergman, KS, et al. Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49(9):681689.Google Scholar
Brody, AL, Saxena, S, Schwartz, JM, et al. FDG-PET predictors of response to behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 1998;84(1):16.Google Scholar
Saxena, S, Brody, AL, Maidment, KM, et al. Localized orbitofrontal and subcortical metabolic changes and predictors of response to paroxetine treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;21(6):683693.Google Scholar
Harrison, BJ, Soriano-Mas, C, Pujol, J, et al. Altered corticostriatal functional connectivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(11):11891200.Google Scholar
Jung, WH, Kang, DH, Kim, E, Shin, KS, Jang, JH, Kwon, JS. Abnormal corticostriatal-limbic functional connectivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder during reward processing and resting-state. Neuroimage Clin. 2013;3:2738.Google Scholar
Jung, WH, Yucel, M, Yun, JY, et al. Altered functional network architecture in orbitofronto-striato-thalamic circuit of unmedicated patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2017;38(1):109119.Google Scholar
Harrison, BJ, Pujol, J, Cardoner, N, et al. Brain corticostriatal systems and the major clinical symptom dimensions of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73(4):321328.Google Scholar
Appleby, BS, Duggan, PS, Regenberg, A, Rabins, PV. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric adverse events associated with deep brain stimulation: a meta-analysis of ten years’ experience. Mov Disord. 2007;22(12):17221728.Google Scholar
Nuttin, B, Cosyns, P, Demeulemeester, H, Gybels, J, Meyerson, B. Electrical stimulation in anterior limbs of internal capsules in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet. 1999;354(9189):1526.Google Scholar
Anderson, D, Ahmed, A. Treatment of patients with intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder with anterior capsular stimulation. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2003;98(5):11041108.Google Scholar
Choudhury, TK, Davidson, JE, Viswanathan, A, Strutt, AM. Deep brain stimulation of the anterior limb of the internal capsule for treatment of therapy-refractory obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): a case study highlighting neurocognitive and psychiatric changes. Neurocase. 2017;23(2):138145.Google Scholar
Nuttin, BJ, Gabriels, LA, Cosyns, PR, et al. Long-term electrical capsular stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery. 2003;52(6):12631272; discussion 72–74.Google Scholar
Abelson, JL, Curtis, GC, Sagher, O, et al. Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(5):510516.Google Scholar
Van Laere, K, Nuttin, B, Gabriels, L, et al. Metabolic imaging of anterior capsular stimulation in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a key role for the subgenual anterior cingulate and ventral striatum. J Nucl Med. 2006;47(5):740747.Google Scholar
Greenberg, BD, Rezai, AR. Mechanisms and the current state of deep brain stimulation in neuropsychiatry. CNS Spectr. 2003;8(7):522526.Google Scholar
Aouizerate, B, Martin-Guehl, C, Cuny, E, et al. Deep brain stimulation for OCD and major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(11):2192.Google Scholar
Greenberg, BD, Malone, DA, Friehs, GM, et al. Three-year outcomes in deep brain stimulation for highly resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006;31(11):23842393.Google Scholar
Roh, D, Chang, WS, Chang, JW, Kim, CH. Long-term follow-up of deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2012;200(2–3):10671070.Google Scholar
Tsai, HC, Chang, CH, Pan, JI, et al. Acute stimulation effect of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum in patients with refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder – a double-blinded trial. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:6369.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Foote, KD, Greenberg, BD, et al. Deep brain stimulation for intractable obsessive compulsive disorder: pilot study using a blinded, staggered-onset design. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(6):535542.Google Scholar
Fayad, SM, Guzick, AG, Reid, AM, et al. Six–nine year follow-up of deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0167875.Google Scholar
Greenberg, BD, Gabriels, LA, Malone, DA, Jr, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder: worldwide experience. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):6479.Google Scholar
Rauch, SL, Dougherty, DD, Malone, D, et al. A functional neuroimaging investigation of deep brain stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neurosurg. 2006;104(4):558565.Google Scholar
Sturm, V, Lenartz, D, Koulousakis, A, et al. The nucleus accumbens: a target for deep brain stimulation in obsessive-compulsive- and anxiety-disorders. J Chem Neuroanat. 2003;26(4):293299.Google Scholar
Franzini, A, Messina, G, Gambini, O, et al. Deep-brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in obsessive compulsive disorder: clinical, surgical and electrophysiological considerations in two consecutive patients. Neurol Sci. 2010;31:353359.Google Scholar
Huff, W, Lenartz, D, Schormann, M, et al. Unilateral deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: outcomes after one year. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112:137143.Google Scholar
Denys, D, Mantione, M, Figee, M, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(10):10611068.Google Scholar
Figee, M, Luigjes, J, Smolders, R, et al. Deep brain stimulation restores frontostriatal network activity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Nat Neurosci. 2013;16(4):386387.Google Scholar
Kuhn, J, Bauer, R, Pohl, S, et al. Observations on unaided smoking cessation after deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens. Eur Addict Res. 2009;15(4):196201.Google Scholar
Kuhn, J, Lenartz, D, Huff, W, et al. Remission of alcohol dependency following deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens: valuable therapeutic implications? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(10):11521153.Google Scholar
Lipsman, N, Woodside, DB, Giacobbe, P, et al. Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: a phase 1 pilot trial. Lancet. 2013;381(9875):13611370.Google Scholar
Wu, H, Van Dyck-Lippens, PJ, Santegoeds, R, et al. Deep-brain stimulation for anorexia nervosa. World Neurosurg. 2013;80(3–4):S29 e1e10.Google Scholar
Muller, UJ, Sturm, V, Voges, J, et al. Successful treatment of chronic resistant alcoholism by deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens: first experience with three cases. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2009;42(6):288291.Google Scholar
Valencia-Alfonso, CE, Luigjes, J, Smolders, R, et al. Effective deep brain stimulation in heroin addiction: a case report with complementary intracranial electroencephalogram. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;71(8):e35-7.Google Scholar
Mallet, L, Mesnage, V, Houeto, JL, et al. Compulsions, Parkinson’s disease, and stimulation. Lancet. 2002;360(9342):13021304.Google Scholar
Fontaine, D, Mattei, V, Borg, M, et al. Effect of subthalamic nucleus stimulation on obsessive-compulsive disorder in a patient with Parkinson disease. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2004;100(6):10841086.Google Scholar
Mallet, L, Polosan, M, Nematollah Jaafari, N, et al. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive–compulsive disorder. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:21212134.Google Scholar
Chabardes, S, Polosan, M, Krack, P, et al. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: subthalamic nucleus target. World Neurosurg. 2013;80(3–4):S31 e1e8.Google Scholar
Le Jeune, F, Verin, M, N’Diaye, K, et al. Decrease of prefrontal metabolism after subthalamic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a positron emission tomography study. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(11):10161022.Google Scholar
Jimenez-Ponce, F, Velasco-Campos, F, Castro-Farfan, G, et al. Preliminary study in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder treated with electrical stimulation in the inferior thalamic peduncle. Neurosurgery. 2009;65(6 Suppl):203209.Google Scholar
Coenen, VA, Schlaepfer, TE, Goll, P, et al. The medial forebrain bundle as a target for deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2017;22(3):282289.Google Scholar
Alonso, P, Cuadras, D, Gabriels, L, et al. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of treatment outcome and predictors of response. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0133591.Google Scholar
Riva-Posse, P, Choi, KS, Holtzheimer, PE, et al. Defining critical white matter pathways mediating successful subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2014;76(12):963969.Google Scholar
van den Heuvel, OA, Remijnse, PL, Mataix-Cols, D, et al. The major symptom dimensions of obsessive-compulsive disorder are mediated by partially distinct neural systems. Brain. 2009;132(Pt 4):853868.Google Scholar
Koch, K, Wagner, G, Schachtzabel, C, et al. White matter structure and symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46(2):264270.Google Scholar
Schlaepfer, TE. Deep brain stimulation for major depression-steps on a long and winding road. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78(4):218219.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, PB. Deep brain stimulation in depression. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2016;50(1):9495.Google Scholar
Frieden, TR. Evidence for health decision making – beyond randomized, controlled trials. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(5):465475.Google Scholar
Kuhn, AA, Volkmann, J. Innovations in deep brain stimulation methodology. Mov Disord. 2017;32(1):1119.Google Scholar
Rossi, S, Hallett, M, Rossini, PM, Pascual-Leone, A. Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research. Clin Neurophysiol. 2009;120:20082039.Google Scholar
Gaynes, BN, Lloyd, SW, Lux, L, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75:477489.Google Scholar
Perera, T, George, MS, Grammer, G, Janicak, PG, Pascual-leone, A, Wirecki, TS. Brain stimulation the clinical TMS Society consensus review and treatment recommendations for TMS therapy for major depressive disorder. Brain Stimul. 2016;9:336346.Google Scholar
Greenberg, BD, George, MS, Martin, JD, et al. Effect of prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary study. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;1546:867869.Google Scholar
Sachdev, PS, McBride, R, Loo, CK, Mitchell, PB, Malhi, GS, Croker, VM. Right versus left prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary investigation. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:981984.Google Scholar
Alonso, P, Pujol, J, Cardoner, N, et al. Right prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:11431145.Google Scholar
Badawy, AA, Sawy, HE, Abd, M, Hay, E. Efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the management of obsessive compulsive disorder. Egypt J Neurol Pscyhiat Neurosurg. 2010;47:393398.Google Scholar
Elbeh, KAM, Elserogy, YMB, Khalifa, HE, Ahmed, MA, Hafez, MH, Khedr, EM. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders: double blind randomized clinical trial. Psychiatry Res. 2016;238:264269.Google Scholar
Kang, JI, Kim, C-H, Namkoong, K, Lee, C-i, Kim, SJ. A randomized controlled study of sequentially applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70:16451651.Google Scholar
Mansur, CG, Myczkowki, ML, de Barros Cabral, S, et al. Placebo effect after prefrontal magnetic stimulation in the treatment of resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011; 14:13891397.Google Scholar
Ma, XY, Huang, YQ, Liao, LW, Jin, Y. A randomized double-blinded sham-controlled trial of α electroencephalogram-guided transcranial magnetic stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Chin Med J (Engl). 2014;127:601606.Google Scholar
Prasko, J, Pasková, B, Záleský, R, et al. The effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on symptoms in obsessive compulsive disorder. A randomized, double blind, sham controlled study. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2006;27:327332.Google Scholar
Sachdev, PS, Loo, CK, Mitchell, PB, Mcfarquhar, TF, Malhi, GS. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder: a double-blind controlled investigation. Psychol Med. 2007;37:16451649.Google Scholar
Sarkhel, S, Sinha, VK, Praharaj, SK. Adjunctive high-frequency right prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) was not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder but improved secondary depression. J Anxiety Disord. 2010;24:535539.Google Scholar
Berlim, MT, Neufeld, NH, Van den Eynde, F. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): an exploratory meta-analysis of randomized and sham-controlled trials. J Psychiatric Res. 2013;47:9991006.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, SR, Menzies, L, Hampshire, A, et al. Orbitofrontal dysfunction in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and their unaffected relatives. Science (NY). 2008;321:421422.Google Scholar
Ruffini, C, Locatelli, M, Lucca, A, Benedetti, F, Insacco, C, Smeraldi, E. Augmentation effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the orbitofrontal cortex in drug-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;11:226230.Google Scholar
Nauczyciel, C, Le Jeune, F, Naudet, F, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the orbitofrontal cortex for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, crossover study. Transl Psychiatry. 2014;4:e436.Google Scholar
Radua, J, van den Heuvel, OA, Surguladze, S, Mataix-Cols, D. Meta-analytical comparison of voxel-based morphometry studies in obsessive-compulsive disorder vs other anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67:701711.Google Scholar
Stern, ER, Fitzgerald, KD, Welsh, RC, Abelson, JL, Taylor, SF. Resting-state functional connectivity between fronto-parietal and default mode networks in obsessive-compulsive disorder. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e36356.Google Scholar
Dunlop, K, Woodside, B, Olmsted, M, Colton, P, Giacobbe, P, Downar, J. Reductions in cortico-striatal hyperconnectivity accompany successful treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder with dorsomedial prefrontal rTMS. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41:13951403.Google Scholar
Modirrousta, M, Shams, E, Katz, C, et al. The efficacy of deep repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the medial prefrontal cortex in obsessive compulsive disorder: results from an open-label study. Depress Anxiety. 2015;32:445450.Google Scholar
Yücel, M, Harrison, BJ, Wood, SJ, et al. Functional and biochemical alterations of the medial frontal cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:946955.Google Scholar
Mantovani, A, Simpson, HB, Fallon, BA, Rossi, S, Lisanby, SH. Randomized sham-controlled trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;13:217227.Google Scholar
Gomes, PVO, Brasil-Neto, JP, Allam, N, Rodrigues de Souza, E. A randomized, double-blind trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder with three-month follow-up. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2012;24:437443.Google Scholar
Hawken, ER, Dilkov, D, Kaludiev, E, Simek, S, Zhang, F, Milev, R. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the supplementary motor area in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multi-site study. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:420.Google Scholar
Pelissolo, A, Harika-Germaneau, G, Rachid, F, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to supplementary motor area in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder treatment: a sham-controlled trial. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;19:16.Google Scholar
Kumar, N, Chadda, RK. Augmentation effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the supplementary motor cortex in treatment refractory patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011;53(4):340342.Google Scholar
Mantovani, A, Lisanby, SH, Pieraccini, F, Ulivelli, M, Castrogiovanni, P, Rossi, S. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette’s syndrome (TS). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2006;9(1):95.Google Scholar
López-Alonso, V, Cheeran, B, Río-Rodríguez, D, Fernández-Del-Olmo, M. Inter-individual variability in response to non-invasive brain stimulation paradigms. Brain Stimulation. 2014;7:372380.Google Scholar
Ridding, MC, Ziemann, U. Determinants of the induction of cortical plasticity by non-invasive brain stimulation in healthy subjects. J Physiol. 2010;588:22912304.Google Scholar
Houdayer, E, Degardin, A, Cassim, F, Bocquillon, P, Derambure, P, Devanne, H. The effects of low- and high-frequency repetitive TMS on the input/output properties of the human corticospinal pathway. Exp Brain Res. 2008;187(2):207217.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, PB, Brown, T, Daskalakis, ZJ, Chen, R, Kulkarni, J. Intensity-dependent effects of 1 Hz rTMS on human corticospinal excitability. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113:11361141.Google Scholar
Lang, N, Harms, J, Weyh, T, et al. Stimulus intensity and coil characteristics influence the efficacy of rTMS to suppress cortical excitability. Clin Neurophysiol. 2006;117:22922301.Google Scholar
Thomson, RH, Cleve, TJ, Bailey, NW, et al. Blood oxygenation changes modulated by coil orientation during prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain Stimul. 2013;6:576581.Google Scholar
Cash, RFH, Dar, A, Hui, J, et al. Influence of inter-train interval on the plastic effects of rTMS. Brain Stimul. 2017;10:630636.Google Scholar
Huang, Y-Z, Edwards, MJ, Rounis, E, Bhatia, KP, Rothwell, JC. Theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex. Neuron. 2005;45:201206.Google Scholar
Wu, C-C, Tsai, C-H, Lu, M-K, Chen, C-M, Shen, W-C, Su, K-P. Theta-burst repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder with concomitant depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71:504506.Google Scholar
Holtzheimer, PE, McDonald, WM, Mufti, M, et al. Accelerated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:960963.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, PB, Hoy, K, McQueen, S, et al. A randomized trial of rTMS targeted with MRI based neuro-navigation in treatment-resistant depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009;34:1255.Google Scholar
Mantovani, A, Westin, G, Hirsch, J, Lisanby, SH. Functional magnetic resonance imaging guided transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67:e39e40.Google Scholar
McClintock, S, Reti, I, Carpenter, L, et al. Consensus recommendations for the clinical application of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017; pii: 16cs10905.Google Scholar
Dinna, WM, Aycicegi-Dinna, A, Göralb, F, et al. Treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: insights from an open trial of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to design a RCT. Neurol Psychiatry Brain Res. 2016;22:124154.Google Scholar
Volpato, C, Piccione, F, Cavinato, M, et al. Modulation of affective symptoms and resting state activity by brain stimulation in a treatment-resistant case of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurocase. 2013;19(4):360370.Google Scholar
Bation, R, Poulet, E, Haesebaert, F, Saoud, M, Brunelin, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label pilot study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016;65:153157.Google Scholar
Mondino, M, Haesebaert, F, Poulet, E, Saoud, M, Brunelin, J. Efficacy of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the left orbitofrontal cortex in a patient with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J ECT. 2015;31(4):271272.Google Scholar
D’Urso, G, Brunoni, AR, Mazzaferro, MP, Anastasia, A, de Bartolomeis, A, Mantovani, A. Transcranial direct current stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, controlled, partial crossover trial. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(12):11321140.Google Scholar
Narayanaswamy, JC, Jose, D, Chhabra, H, et al. Successful application of add-on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for treatment of SSRI resistant OCD. Brain Stimul. 2015;8(3):655657.Google Scholar
Silva, RM, Brunoni, AR, Miguel, EC, Shavitt, RG. Transcranial direct current stimulation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: report on two cases and proposal for a randomized, sham-controlled trial. Sao Paulo Med J. 2016;134(5):446450.Google Scholar
Jamil, A, Batsikadze, G, Kuo, HI, et al. Systematic evaluation of the impact of stimulation intensity on neuroplastic after-effects induced by transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol. 2017;595(4):12731288.Google Scholar
Monte-Silva, K, Kuo, MF, Hessenthaler, S, et al. Induction of late LTP-like plasticity in the human motor cortex by repeated non-invasive brain stimulation. Brain Stimul. 2013;6(3):424432.Google Scholar
Batsikadze, G, Moliadze, V, Paulus, W, Kuo, MF, Nitsche, MA. Partially non-linear stimulation intensity-dependent effects of direct current stimulation on motor cortex excitability in humans. J Physiol. 2013;591(7):19872000.Google Scholar
Shahid, SS, Bikson, M, Salman, H, Wen, P, Ahfock, T. The value and cost of complexity in predictive modelling: role of tissue anisotropic conductivity and fibre tracts in neuromodulation. J Neural Eng. 2014;11(3):036002.Google Scholar
Hill, AT, Rogasch, NC, Fitzgerald, PB, Hoy, KE. Effects of prefrontal bipolar and high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation on cortical reactivity and working memory in healthy adults. Neuroimage. 2017;152:142157.Google Scholar
Strube, W, Bunse, T, Nitsche, MA, et al. Bidirectional variability in motor cortex excitability modulation following 1 mA transcranial direct current stimulation in healthy participants. Physiol Rep. 2016;4(15).Google Scholar
Krause, B, Cohen Kadosh, R. Not all brains are created equal: the relevance of individual differences in responsiveness to transcranial electrical stimulation. Front Syst Neurosci. 2014;8:25.Google Scholar
Li, LM, Uehara, K, Hanakawa, T. The contribution of interindividual factors to variability of response in transcranial direct current stimulation studies. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:181.Google Scholar
Segrave, RA, Arnold, S, Hoy, K, Fitzgerald, PB. Concurrent cognitive control training augments the antidepressant efficacy of tDCS: a pilot study. Brain Stimul. 2014;7(2):325331.Google Scholar
Brunoni, AR, Valiengo, L, Baccaro, A, et al. The sertraline vs. electrical current therapy for treating depression clinical study: results from a factorial, randomized, controlled trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(4):383391.Google Scholar
Everitt, BJ, Robbins, TW. From the ventral to the dorsal striatum: devolving views of their roles in drug addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;37(9 Pt A):19461954.Google Scholar
DeLong, MR, Wichmann, T. Circuits and circuit disorders of the basal ganglia. Arch Neurol. 2007;64(1):2024.Google Scholar
Fornito, A, Harrison, BJ, Goodby, E, et al. Functional dysconnectivity of corticostriatal circuitry as a risk phenotype for psychosis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(11):11431151.Google Scholar
Liu, J, Blond, BN, van Dyck, LI, Spencer, L, Wang, F, Blumberg, HP. Trait and state corticostriatal dysfunction in bipolar disorder during emotional face processing. Bipolar Disord. 2012;14(4):432441.Google Scholar
Price, JL, Drevets, WC. Neural circuits underlying the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012;16(1):6171.Google Scholar
Insel, T, Cuthbert, B, Garvey, M, et al. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(7):748751.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Fontenelle, LF, Oostermeijer, S, Harrison, BJ, Pantelis, C, Yucel, M. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, impulse control disorders and drug addiction: common features and potential treatments. Drugs. 2011;71(7):827840.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, SR, Stochl, J, Redden, SA, Grant, JE. Latent traits of impulsivity and compulsivity: toward dimensional psychiatry. Psychol Med. 2017:112.Google Scholar
Prochazkova, L, Parkes, L, Dawson, A, et al. Unpacking the role of self-reported compulsivity and impulsivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2017:18.Google Scholar
Fineberg, NA, Chamberlain, SR, Goudriaan, AE, et al. New developments in human neurocognition: clinical, genetic, and brain imaging correlates of impulsivity and compulsivity. CNS Spectr. 2014;19(1):6989.Google Scholar
Gillan, CM, Morein-Zamir, S, Urcelay, GP, et al. Enhanced avoidance habits in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2014;75(8):631638.Google Scholar
Balleine, BW, O’Doherty, JP. Human and rodent homologies in action control: corticostriatal determinants of goal-directed and habitual action. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(1):4869.Google Scholar
de Wit, S, Watson, P, Harsay, HA, Cohen, MX, van de Vijver, I, Ridderinkhof, KR. Corticostriatal connectivity underlies individual differences in the balance between habitual and goal-directed action control. J Neurosci. 2012;32(35):1206612075.Google Scholar

References

Ruscio, AM, Stein, DJ, Chiu, WT, Kessler, RC. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15(1):5363.Google Scholar
Fernández de la Cruz, L, Rydell, M, Runeson, B, et al. Suicide in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a population-based study of 36788 Swedish patients. Mol Psychiatry. 2017;22(11):16261632.Google Scholar
McKay, D, Sookman, D, Neziroglu, F, et al. Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2015;227(1):104113.Google Scholar
Husted, DS, Shapira, NA. A review of the treatment for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: from medicine to deep brain stimulation. CNS Spectr. 2004;9(11):833847.Google Scholar
Heller, AC, Amar, AP, Liu, CY, Apuzzo, MLJ. Surgery of the mind and mood: a mosaic of issues in time and evolution. Neurosurgery. 2006;59(4):720739.Google Scholar
Feldman, RP, Goodrich, JT. Psychosurgery: a historical overview. Neurosurgery. 2001;48(3):647659.Google Scholar
Mashour, GA, Walker, EE, Martuza, RL. Psychosurgery: past, present, and future. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2005;48(3):409419.Google Scholar
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Appendix: Psychosurgery . Publication no. 77-0002. Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare; 1977.Google Scholar
Spiegel, EA, Wycis, HT, Marks, M, Lee, AJ. Stereotaxic apparatus for operations on the human brain. Science. 1947;106(2754):349350.Google Scholar
Talairach, Hecaen H, David, M. Lobotomie préfrontal limitée par électro-coagulation des jikes thalamopontales à leur émergence du bras antérieur de la capoule interne. In: 4th International Congress of Neurology. Paris: ICN. Paris, France; 1949.Google Scholar
Leksell, L, Herner, T, Lidén, K. Stereotaxic radiosurgery of the brain. Report of a case. K Fysiogr Sällsk Lund Förhandl. 1955;25(17):142151.Google Scholar
Whitty, CWM, Dufield, JE, Tov’, PM, Cairns, H. Anterior cingulectomy in the treatment of mental disease. Lancet. 1952 Mar 8;1(6706):475481.Google Scholar
Knight, G. Stereotactic tractotomy in the surgical treatment of mental illness. S J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1965 Aug;28:304310.Google Scholar
Kelly, D, Mitchell-Heggs, N. Stereotactic limbic leucotomy--a follow-up study of thirty patients. Postgrad Med J. 1973 Dec;49(578):865882.Google Scholar
Greenberg, BD, Rauch, SL, Haber, SN. Invasive circuitry-based neurotherapeutics: stereotactic ablation and deep brain stimulation for OCD. Neuropsychopharmacol Off Publ Am Coll Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 Jan;35(1):317336.Google Scholar
Jung, HH, Kim, SJ, Roh, D, et al. Bilateral thermal capsulotomy with MR-guided focused ultrasound for patients with treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a proof-of-concept study. Mol Psychiatry. 2015;20(10):12051211.Google Scholar
Haber, SN, McFarland, NR. The concept of the ventral striatum in nonhuman primates. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;877:3348.Google Scholar
Suetens, K, Nuttin, B, Gabriëls, L, Van Laere, K. Differences in metabolic network modulation between capsulotomy and deep-brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Nucl Med Off Publ Soc Nucl Med. 2014;55(6):951959.Google Scholar
Rylander, G. Försök med gammakapsulotomi vid ångest- och tvångsneuroser. Läkartidningen. 1978;75(7):547549.Google Scholar
Oliver, B, Gascón, J, Aparicio, A, et al. Bilateral anterior capsulotomy for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorders. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2003;81(1–4):9095.Google Scholar
D’Astous, M, Cottin, S, Roy, M, Picard, C, Cantin, L. Bilateral stereotactic anterior capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: long-term follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(11):12081213.Google Scholar
Lippitz, BE, Mindus, P, Meyerson, BA, Kihlström, L, Lindquist, C. Lesion topography and outcome after thermocapsulotomy or gamma knife capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: relevance of the right hemisphere. Neurosurgery. 1999;44(3):452460.Google Scholar
Rück, C, Karlsson, A, Steele, JD, et al. Capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: long-term follow-up of 25 patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65(8):914921.Google Scholar
Liu, K, Zhang, H, Liu, C, et al. Stereotactic treatment of refractory obsessive compulsive disorder by bilateral capsulotomy with 3 years follow-up. J Clin Neurosci Off J Neurosurg Soc Australas. 2008;15(6):622629.Google Scholar
Csigó, K, Harsányi, A, Demeter, G, Rajkai, C, Németh, A, Racsmány, M. Long-term follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder treated by anterior capsulotomy: a neuropsychological study. J Affect Disord. 2010;126(12):198205.Google Scholar
Sheth, SA, Neal, J, Tangherlini, F, et al. Limbic system surgery for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a prospective long-term follow-up of 64 patients. J Neurosurg. 2013;118(3):491497.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D. Functional radiosurgery. Neurosurgery. 1999;44(1):1222.Google Scholar
Leksell, L. Stereotactic radiosurgery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983;46(9):797803.Google Scholar
Kihlström, L, Guo, WY, Lindquist, C, Mindus, P. Radiobiology of radiosurgery for refractory anxiety disorders. Neurosurgery. 1995;36(2):294302.Google Scholar
Lippitz, B, Mindus, P, Meyerson, BA, Kihlström, L, Lindquist, C. Obsessive compulsive disorder and the right hemisphere: topographic analysis of lesions after anterior capsulotomy performed with thermocoagulation. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1997;68:6163.Google Scholar
Mindus, P, Edman, G, Andréewitch, S. A prospective, long-term study of personality traits in patients with intractable obsessional illness treated by capsulotomy. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1999;99(1):4050.Google Scholar
Gascón, J, Martin, MJ, Soler Insa, PA, Alea, E, Aparicio, A, Oliver, B. Efficacy of psychosurgery in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Preliminary results (September 2002). Rev Psiquiatr Fac Med Barc. 2002;29(6):398409.Google Scholar
Zhan, S, Liu, W, Li, D, et al. Long-term follow-up of bilateral anterior capsulotomy in patients with refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014;119:9195.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, SA. Anterior gamma capsulotomy for intractable OCD. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Conference. Sardinia, Italy; 2001.Google Scholar
Lopes, AC, Greenberg, BD, Norén, G, et al. Treatment of resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder with ventral capsular/ventral striatal gamma capsulotomy: a pilot prospective study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;21(4):381392.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D, Flickinger, JC, Hudak, R. Results following gamma knife radiosurgical anterior capsulotomies for obsessive compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery. 2011;68(1):2832.Google Scholar
Sheehan, JP, Patterson, G, Schlesinger, D, Xu, Z. γ knife surgery anterior capsulotomy for severe and refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neurosurg. 2013;119(5):11121118.Google Scholar
Taub, A, Lopes, A, Fuentes, D, et al. Neuropsychological outcome of ventral capsular/ventral striatal gamma capsulotomy for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a pilot study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;21(4):393397.Google Scholar
Nuttin, BJ, Gabriëls, LA, Cosyns, PR, et al. Long-term electrical capsular stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery. 2003;52(6):12631274.Google Scholar
Abelson, JL, Curtis, GC, Sagher, O, et al. Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(5):510516.Google Scholar
Goodman, WK, Foote, KD, Greenberg, BD, et al. Deep brain stimulation for intractable obsessive compulsive disorder: pilot study using a blinded, staggered-onset design. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(6):535542.Google Scholar
Huff, W, Lenartz, D, Schormann, M, et al. Unilateral deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: outcomes after one year. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112(2):137143.Google Scholar
Denys, D, Mantione, M, Figee, M, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(10):10611068.Google Scholar
Mallet, L, Polosan, M, Jaafari, N, et al. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(20):21212134.Google Scholar
Luyten, L, Hendrickx, S, Raymaekers, S, Gabriëls, L, Nuttin, B. Electrical stimulation in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis alleviates severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(9):12721280.Google Scholar
Lopes, AC, Greenberg, BD, Canteras, MM, et al. Gamma ventral capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(9):10661076.Google Scholar
Batistuzzo, M Marcelo, T, Anita, G, et al. Visuospatial memory improvement after gamma ventral capsulotomy in treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40(8):18371845.Google Scholar
Benabid, AL, Pollak, P, Louveau, A, Henry, S, de Rougemont, J. Combined (thalamotomy and stimulation) stereotactic surgery of the VIM thalamic nucleus for bilateral Parkinson disease. Appl Neurophysiol. 1987;50(1–6):344346.Google Scholar
Nuttin, B, Cosyns, P, Demeulemeester, H, Gybels, J, Meyerson, B. Electrical stimulation in anterior limbs of internal capsules in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet. 1999;354(9189):1526.Google Scholar
Alonso, P, Cuadras, D, Gabriels, L, et al. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of treatment outcome and predictors of response. PloS One. 2015;10(7):e0133591.Google Scholar
Baker, EF. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome treated by bimedial frontal leucotomy. Can Med Assoc J. 1962 Apr 21;86(16):746747.Google Scholar
Hassler, R, Dieckmann, G. Stereotaxic treatment of tics and inarticulate cries or coprolalia considered as motor obsessional phenomena in Gilles de la Tourette’s disease. Rev Neurol (Paris). 1970;123(2):89100.Google Scholar
Robertson, M, Doran, M, Trimble, M, Lees, AJ. The treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome by limbic leucotomy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990;53(8):691694.Google Scholar
Sawle, GV, Lees, AJ, Hymas, NF, Brooks, DJ, Frackowiak, RS. The metabolic effects of limbic leucotomy in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56(9):10161019.Google Scholar
Kurlan, R, Kersun, J, Ballantine, HT Jr, Caine, ED. Neurosurgical treatment of severe obsessive-compulsive disorder associated with Tourette’s syndrome. Mov Disord Off J Mov Disord Soc. 1990;5(2):152155.Google Scholar
Baer, L, Rauch, SL, Jenike, MA, et al. Cingulotomy in a case of concomitant obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette’s syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(1):7374.Google Scholar
Vandewalle, V, van der Linden, C, Groenewegen, HJ, Caemaert, J. Stereotactic treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome by high frequency stimulation of thalamus. Lancet. 1999;353(9154):724.Google Scholar
Baldermann, JC, Schüller, T, Huys, D, et al. Deep brain stimulation for Tourette-syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Stimulat. 2016;9(2):296304.Google Scholar
Graat, I, Figee, M, Denys, D. The application of deep brain stimulation in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry Abingdon Engl. 2017;29(2):178190.Google Scholar
Kachani, AT, Barroso, LP, Brasiliano, S, Hochgraf, PB, Cordás, TA. Body checking and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Brazilian outpatients with eating disorders. Eat Weight Disord EWD. 2014;19(2):177182.Google Scholar
Giel, KE, Friederich, H-C, Teufel, M, Hautzinger, M, Enck, P, Zipfel, S. Attentional processing of food pictures in individuals with anorexia nervosa: an eye-tracking study. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;69(7):661667.Google Scholar
Barbier, J, Gabriëls, L, van Laere, K, Nuttin, B. Successful anterior capsulotomy in comorbid anorexia nervosa and obsessive-compulsive disorder: case report. Neurosurgery. 2011;69(3):e745e751.Google Scholar
Wang, J, Chang, C, Geng, N, Wang, X, Gao, G. Treatment of intractable anorexia nervosa with inactivation of the nucleus accumbens using stereotactic surgery. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2013;91(6):364372.Google Scholar
Lipsman, N, Woodside, DB, Giacobbe, P, et al. Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: a phase 1 pilot trial. Lancet. 2013;381(9875): 13611370.Google Scholar
Wu, H, Van Dyck-Lippens, PJ, Santegoeds, R, et al. Deep-brain stimulation for anorexia nervosa. World Neurosurg. 2013;80(3–4):S29.e1–e10.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, NCR, Didie, ER, Machado, AG, Haber, SN, Eskandar, EN, Greenberg, BD. Improvements in anorexia symptoms after deep brain stimulation for intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73(9):e29e31.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. Washington, DC: APA; 2013.Google Scholar
Gentil, AF, Lopes, AC, Dougherty, DD, et al. Hoarding symptoms and prediction of poor response to limbic system surgery for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neurosurg. 2014;121(1):123130.Google Scholar
Riva-Posse, P, Choi, KS, Holtzheimer, PE, et al. A connectomics approach for subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation surgery: prospective targeting in treatment-resistant depression. Mol Psychiatry. 2018;23(4):843849.Google Scholar

References

Sarris, J, Logan, AC, Akbaraly, TN, et al. Nutritional medicine as mainstream in psychiatry. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(3):271274.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Murphy, J, Mischoulon, D, Fava, M, Berk, M, Ng, C. Adjunctive nutrient nutraceuticals for depression: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(6):575587.Google Scholar
Figee, M, Pattij, T, Willuhn, I, et al. Compulsivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder and addictions. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(5):856868.Google Scholar
Rector, NA, Richter, MA, Lerman, B, Regev, R. A pilot test of the additive benefits of physical exercise to CBT for OCD. Cogn Behav Ther. 2015;44(4):328340.Google Scholar
Gille, D, Schmid, A. Vitamin B12 in meat and dairy products. Nutr Rev. 2015;73(2):106115.Google Scholar
Gueant, JL, Caillerez-Fofou, M, Battaglia-Hsu, S, et al. Molecular and cellular effects of vitamin B12 in brain, myocardium and liver through its role as co-factor of methionine synthase. Biochimie. 2013;95(5):10331040.Google Scholar
Hannibal, L, Lysne, V, Bjorke-Monsen, AL, et al. Biomarkers and algorithms for the diagnosis of vitamin B12 deficiency. Front Mol Biosci. 2016;3:27.Google Scholar
Pauls, DL, Abramovitch, A, Rauch, SL, Geller, DA. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: an integrative genetic and neurobiological perspective. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014;15(6):410424.Google Scholar
Marazziti, D. Understanding the role of serotonin in psychiatric diseases. F1000Res. 2017;6:180.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y, Hodgson, NW, Trivedi, MS, et al. Decreased brain levels of vitamin B12 in aging, autism and schizophrenia. PloS One. 2016;11(1):e0146797.Google Scholar
Berk, M, Ng, F, Dean, O, Dodd, S, Bush, AI. Glutathione: a novel treatment target in psychiatry. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008;29(7):346351.Google Scholar
Brennan, B, Jensen, JE, Perriello, C, et al. Lower posterior cingulate cortex glutathione levels in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40:S119S120.Google Scholar
Kar, S, Choudhury, I. An empirical review on oxidative stress markers and their relevance in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Nutr Pharmacol Neurol Dis. 2016;6(4):139145.Google Scholar
Sharma, V, Biswas, D. Cobalamin deficiency presenting as obsessive compulsive disorder: case report. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2012;34(5):578 e7–e8.Google Scholar
Valizadeh, M, Valizadeh, N. Obsessive compulsive disorder as early manifestation of B12 deficiency. Indian J Psychol Med. 2011;33(2):203204.Google Scholar
Hermesh, H, Weizman, A, Shahar, A, Munitz, H. Vitamin B12 and folic acid serum levels in obsessive compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1988;78(1):810.Google Scholar
Turksoy, N, Bilici, R, Yalciner, A, et al. Vitamin B12, folate, and homocysteine levels in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:16711675.Google Scholar
Atmaca, M, Tezcan, E, Kuloglu, M, Kirtas, O, Ustundag, B. Serum folate and homocysteine levels in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2005;59(5):616620.Google Scholar
Gropper, SA, Smith, JA. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning; 2013.Google Scholar
Szewczyk, B, Kubera, M, Nowak, G. The role of zinc in neurodegenerative inflammatory pathways in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2011;35(3):693701.Google Scholar
Bancila, V, Nikonenko, I, Dunant, Y, Bloc, A. Zinc inhibits glutamate release via activation of pre-synaptic K channels and reduces ischaemic damage in rat hippocampus. J Neurochem. 2004;90(5):12431250.Google Scholar
Peters, S, Koh, J, Choi, DW. Zinc selectively blocks the action of N-methyl-D-aspartate on cortical neurons. Science. 1987;236(4801):589593.Google Scholar
Takeda, A, Hirate, M, Tamano, H, Oku, N. Release of glutamate and GABA in the hippocampus under zinc deficiency. J Neurosci Res. 2003;72(4):537542.Google Scholar
Bagchi, D, Vuchetich, PJ, Bagchi, M, et al. Protective effects of zinc salts on TPA-induced hepatic and brain lipid peroxidation, glutathione depletion, DNA damage and peritoneal macrophage activation in mice. Gen Pharmacol. 1998;30(1):4350.Google Scholar
Shohag, H, Ullah, A, Qusar, S, Rahman, M, Hasnat, A. Alterations of serum zinc, copper, manganese, iron, calcium, and magnesium concentrations and the complexity of interelement relations in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2012;148(3):275280.Google Scholar
Sayyah, M, Olapour, A, Saeedabad, Y, Yazdan Parast, R, Malayeri, A. Evaluation of oral zinc sulfate effect on obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. Nutrition. 2012;28(9):892895.Google Scholar
Miao, D, Young, SL, Golden, CD. A meta-analysis of pica and micronutrient status. Am J Hum Biol. 2015;27(1):8493.Google Scholar
Deepmala, Slattery J, Kumar, N, et al. Clinical trials of N-acetylcysteine in psychiatry and neurology: a systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2015;55:294321.Google Scholar
Prescott, LF, Park, J, Ballantyne, A, Adriaenssens, P, Proudfoot, AT. Treatment of paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning with N-acetylcysteine. Lancet. 1977;2(8035):432434.Google Scholar
Lavoie, S, Murray, MM, Deppen, P, et al. Glutathione precursor, N-acetyl-cysteine, improves mismatch negativity in schizophrenia patients. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33(9):21872199.Google Scholar
Dean, OM, van den Buuse, M, Berk, M, Copolov, DL, Mavros, C, Bush, AI. N-acetyl cysteine restores brain glutathione loss in combined 2-cyclohexene-1-one and d-amphetamine-treated rats: relevance to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Neurosci Lett. 2011;499(3):149153.Google Scholar
Das, P, Tanious, M, Fritz, K, et al. Metabolite profiles in the anterior cingulate cortex of depressed patients differentiate those taking N-acetyl-cysteine versus placebo. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2013;47(4):347354.Google Scholar
Grados, MA, Atkins, EB, Kovacikova, GI, McVicar, E. A selective review of glutamate pharmacological therapy in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2015;8:115131.Google Scholar
Baker, DA, McFarland, K, Lake, RW, Shen, H, Toda, S, Kalivas, PW. N-acetyl cysteine-induced blockade of cocaine-induced reinstatement. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;1003:349351.Google Scholar
Madayag, A, Lobner, D, Kau, KS, et al. Repeated N-acetylcysteine administration alters plasticity-dependent effects of cocaine. J Neurosci. 2007;27(51):1396813976.Google Scholar
Reissner, KJ, Gipson, CD, Tran, PK, Knackstedt, LA, Scofield, MD, Kalivas, PW. Glutamate transporter GLT-1 mediates N-acetylcysteine inhibition of cocaine reinstatement. Addict Biol. 2015;20(2):316323.Google Scholar
Hurley, MM, Resch, JM, Maunze, B, Frenkel, MM, Baker, DA, Choi, S. N-acetylcysteine decreases binge eating in a rodent model. Int J Obes (Lond). 2016;40(7):11831186.Google Scholar
Kupchik, YM, Moussawi, K, Tang, XC, et al. The effect of N-acetylcysteine in the nucleus accumbens on neurotransmission and relapse to cocaine. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;71(11):978986.Google Scholar
Samuni, Y, Goldstein, S, Dean, OM, Berk, M. The chemistry and biological activities of N-acetylcysteine. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013;1830(8):41174129.Google Scholar
Lafleur, DL, Pittenger, C, Kelmendi, B, et al. N-acetylcysteine augmentation in serotonin reuptake inhibitor refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006;184(2):254256.Google Scholar
Rodrigues-Barata, AR, Tosti, A, Rodriguez-Pichardo, A, Camacho-Martinez, F. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of trichotillomania. Int J Trichol. 2012;4(3):176178.Google Scholar
Ozcan, D, Seckin, D. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of trichotillomania: remarkable results in two patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2016;30(9):16061608.Google Scholar
Yazici, KU, Percinel, I. N-acetylcysteine augmentation in children and adolescents diagnosed with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder case series. J Clin Psychopharm. 2015;35(4):486489.Google Scholar
Paydary, K, Akamaloo, A, Ahmadipour, A, Pishgar, F, Emamzadehfard, S, Akhondzadeh, S. N-acetylcysteine augmentation therapy for moderate-to-severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2016;41(2):214219.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Oliver, G, Camfield, DA, et al. N-acetyl cysteine (nac) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a 16-week, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. CNS Drugs. 2015;29(9):801809.Google Scholar
Costa, DLC, Diniz, JB, Joaquim, M, et al. Poster sessions: P.4.d.006 Serotonin reuptake inhibitor augmentation with n-acetylcysteine in treatment resistant OCD: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;25(Suppl 2):S570.Google Scholar
Afshar, H, Roohafza, H, Mohammad-Beigi, H, et al. N-acetylcysteine add-on treatment in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(6):797803.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine, a glutamate modulator, in the treatment of trichotillomania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(7):756763.Google Scholar
Bloch, MH, Panza, KE, Grant, JE, Pittenger, C, Leckman, JF. N-Acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric trichotillomania: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(3):231240.Google Scholar
Ghanizadeh, A, Derakhshan, N, Berk, M. N-acetylcysteine versus placebo for treating nail biting, a double blind randomized placebo controlled clinical trial. Antiinflamm Antiallergy Agents Med Chem. 2013;12(3):223228.Google Scholar
Miller, JL, Angulo, M. An open-label pilot study of N-acetylcysteine for skin-picking in Prader-Willi syndrome. Am J Med Genet A. 2014;164A(2):421424.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Chamberlain, SR, Redden, SA, Leppink, EW, Odlaug, BL, Kim, SW. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of excoriation disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(5):490496.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Kim, SW, Odlaug, BL. N-acetyl cysteine, a glutamate-modulating agent, in the treatment of pathological gambling: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(6):652657.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL, Chamberlain, SR, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine plus imaginal desensitization for nicotine-dependent pathological gamblers. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75(1):3945.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Oliver, G, Camfield, DA, Dean, OM. Participant characteristics as modifiers of response to N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin Psychol Sci. 2016;4(6):11041111.Google Scholar
Back, SE, McCauley, JL, Korte, KJ, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled pilot trial of N-acetylcysteine in veterans with PTSD and substance use disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016 Nov;77(11):e1439.Google Scholar
LaRowe, SD, Kalivas, PW, Nicholas, JS, Randall, PK, Mardikian, PN, Malcolm, RJ. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of cocaine dependence. Am J Addict. 2013;22(5):443452.Google Scholar
Kalivas, BC, Kalivas, PW. Corticostriatal circuitry in regulating diseases characterized by intrusive thinking. Dialogues Clin Neuro. 2016;18(1):6576.Google Scholar
Kim, H, McGrath, BM, Silverstone, PH. A review of the possible relevance of inositol and the phosphatidylinositol second messenger system (PI-cycle) to psychiatric disorders--focus on magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2005;20(5):309326.Google Scholar
Harvey, BH, Brink, CB, Seedat, S, Stein, DJ. Defining the neuromolecular action of myo-inositol: application to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26(1):2132.Google Scholar
Marazziti, D, Masala, I, Rossi, A, et al. Increased inhibitory activity of protein kinase C on the serotonin transporter in OCD. Neuropsychobiology. 2000;41(4):171177.Google Scholar
Harvey, BH, Brink, CB, Seedat, S, Stein, DJ. Defining the neuromolecular action of myo-inositol: application to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26(1):2132.Google Scholar
Vulink, NC, Planting, RS, Figee, M, Booij, J, Denys, D. Reduced striatal dopamine D2/3 receptor availability in body dysmorphic disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(2):350356.Google Scholar
Mukai, T, Kishi, T, Matsuda, Y, Iwata, N. A meta-analysis of inositol for depression and anxiety disorders. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2014;29(1):5563.Google Scholar
Fux, M, Levine, J, Aviv, A, Belmaker, RH. Inositol treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(9):12191221.Google Scholar
Carey, PD, Warwick, J, Harvey, BH, Stein, DJ, Seedat, S. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in obsessive-compulsive disorder before and after treatment with inositol. Metab Brain Dis. 2004;19(1–2):125134.Google Scholar
Fux, M, Benjamin, J, Belmaker, RH. Inositol versus placebo augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind cross-over study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 1999;2(3):193195.Google Scholar
Seedat, S, Stein, DJ. Inositol augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;14(6):353356.Google Scholar
Leppink, EW, Redden, SA, Grant, JE. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of inositol in trichotillomania. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017;32(2):107114.Google Scholar
Seedat, S, Stein, DJ, Harvey, BH. Inositol in the treatment of trichotillomania and compulsive skin picking. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(1):6061.Google Scholar
Cioffi, CL, Guzzo, PR. Inhibitors of glycine transporter-1: potential therapeutics for the treatment of CNS disorders. Curr Top Med Chem. 2016;16(29):34043437.Google Scholar
Cleveland, WL, DeLaPaz, RL, Fawwaz, RA, Challop, RS. High-dose glycine treatment of refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder in a 5-year period. Neural Plast. 2009;2009:768398.Google Scholar
Greenberg, WM, Benedict, MM, Doerfer, J, et al. Adjunctive glycine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults. J Psychiatr Res. 2009;43(6):664670.Google Scholar
Lane, HY, Liu, YC, Huang, CL, et al. Sarcosine (N-methylglycine) treatment for acute schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind study. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(1):912.Google Scholar
Tsai, G, Lane, HY, Yang, P, Chong, MY, Lange, N. Glycine transporter I inhibitor, N-methylglycine (sarcosine), added to antipsychotics for the treatment of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55(5):452456.Google Scholar
Wu, PL, Tang, HS, Lane, HY, Tsai, CA, Tsai, GE. Sarcosine therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder a prospective, open-label study. J Clin Psychopharm. 2011;31(3):369374.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Panossian, A, Schweitzer, I, Stough, C, Scholey, A. Herbal medicine for depression, anxiety and insomnia: a review of psychopharmacology and clinical evidence. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;21(12):841860.Google Scholar
Newmaster, SG, Grguric, M, Shanmughanandhan, D, Ramalingam, S, Ragupathy, S. DNA barcoding detects contamination and substitution in North American herbal products. BMC Med. 2013;11:222.Google Scholar
Kulkarni, SK, Dhir, A. Withania somnifera: an Indian ginseng. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008;32(5):10931105.Google Scholar
Dar, NJ, Bhat, JA, Satti, NK, Sharma, PR, Hamid, A, Ahmad, M. Withanone, an active constituent from Withania somnifera, affords protection against NMDA-induced excitotoxicity in neuron-like cells. Mol Neurobiol. 2017; 54(7):5061–5073.Google Scholar
Kumar, G, Patnaik, R. Exploring neuroprotective potential of Withania somnifera phytochemicals by inhibition of GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors: an in silico study. Med Hypotheses. 2016;92:3543.Google Scholar
Rajasankar, S, Manivasagam, T, Surendran, S. Ashwagandha leaf extract: a potential agent in treating oxidative damage and physiological abnormalities seen in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett. 2009;454(1):1115.Google Scholar
Bansal, P, Banerjee, S. Effect of Withania somnifera and shilajit on alcohol addiction in mice. Pharmacogn Mag. 2016;12(46):S121S128.Google Scholar
Candelario, M, Cuellar, E, Reyes-Ruiz, JM, et al. Direct evidence for GABAergic activity of Withania somnifera on mammalian ionotropic GABA(A) and GABAp receptors. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;171:264272.Google Scholar
Bhatnagar, M, Sharma, D, Salvi, M. Neuroprotective effects of Withania somnifera dunal.: a possible mechanism. Neurochem Res. 2009;34(11):19751983.Google Scholar
Kulkarni, SK, Ninan, I. Inhibition of morphine tolerance and dependence by Withania somnifera in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 1997;57(3):213217.Google Scholar
Peana, AT, Muggironi, G, Spina, L, et al. Effects of Withania somnifera on oral ethanol self- administration in rats. Behav Pharmacol. 2014;25(7):618628.Google Scholar
Kaurav, BP, Wanjari, MM, Chandekar, A, Chauhan, NS, Upmanyu, N. Influence of Withania somnifera on obsessive compulsive disorder in mice. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012;5(5):380384.Google Scholar
Attari, M, Jamaloo, F, Shadvar, S, Fakhraei, N, Dehpour, AR. Effect of Withania somnifera dunal root extract on behavioral despair model in mice: a possible role for nitric oxide. Acta Med Iran. 2016;54(3):165172.Google Scholar
Jahanbakhsh, SP, Manteghi, AA, Emami, SA, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) root extract in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Complement Ther Med. 2016;27:2529.Google Scholar
Sayyah, M, Boostani, H, Pakseresht, S, Malayeri, A. Comparison of Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. with fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010;34(2):362365.Google Scholar
Taylor, LH, Kobak, KA. An open-label trial of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(8):575578.Google Scholar
Kobak, KA, Taylor, LV, Bystritsky, A, et al. St John’s wort versus placebo in obsessive-compulsive disorder: results from a double-blind study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;20(6):299304.Google Scholar
Csupor, D, Csorba, A, Hohmann, J. Recent advances in the analysis of flavonolignans of Silybum marianum. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2016;130:301317.Google Scholar
Hirayama, K, Oshima, H, Yamashita, A, Sakatani, K, Yoshino, A, Katayama, Y. Neuroprotective effects of silymarin on ischemia-induced delayed neuronal cell death in rat hippocampus. Brain Res. 2016;1646:297303.Google Scholar
Shanmugam, K, Holmquist, L, Steele, M, et al. Plant-derived polyphenols attenuate lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide and tumour necrosis factor production in murine microglia and macrophages. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52(4):427438.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, A, Aspillaga, M, Vial, S, Guerra, R. Selectivity of silymarin on the increase of the glutathione content in different tissues of the rat. Planta Med. 1989;55(5):420422.Google Scholar
Nencini, C, Giorgi, G, Micheli, L. Protective effect of silymarin on oxidative stress in rat brain. Phytomedicine. 2007;14(2–3):129135.Google Scholar
Osuchowski, MF, Johnson, VJ, He, QR, Sharma, RP. Alterations in regional brain neurotransmitters by silymarin, a natural antioxidant flavonoid mixture, in BALB/c mice. Pharm Biol. 2004;42(4–5):384389.Google Scholar
Lu, P, Mamiya, T, Lu, L, et al. Silibinin attenuates cognitive deficits and decreases of dopamine and serotonin induced by repeated methamphetamine treatment. Behav Brain Res. 2010;207(2):387393.Google Scholar
Solati, J, Yaghmaei, P, Mohammdadi, K. Role of the 5-HT1A serotonergic system in anxiolytic-like effects of silymarin. Neurophysiology+. 2012;44(1):4955.Google Scholar
Thakare, VN, Dhakane, VD, Patel, BM. Potential antidepressant-like activity of silymarin in the acute restraint stress in mice: modulation of corticosterone and oxidative stress response in cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Pharmacol Rep. 2016;68(5):10201027.Google Scholar
Grant, JE, Odlaug, BL. Silymarin treatment of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychopharm. 2015;35(3):340342.Google Scholar
Jeschke, E, Ostermann, T, Vollmar, HC, Tabali, M, Matthes, H. Depression, comorbidities, and prescriptions of antidepressants in a German network of GPs and specialists with subspecialisation in anthroposophic medicine: a longitudinal observational study. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012;2012:508623.Google Scholar
Klemow, KM, Bartlow, A, Crawford, J, Kocher, N, Shah, J, Ritsick, M. Medical attributes of St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum). In: Benzie, IFF, Wachtel-Galor, S, eds. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects, 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor and Francis; 2011.Google Scholar
Linde, K, Berner, MM, Kriston, L. St John’s wort for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(4):CD000448.Google Scholar
Kobak, KA, Taylor, LV, Warner, G, Futterer, R. St. John’s wort versus placebo in social phobia: results from a placebo-controlled pilot study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25(1):5158.Google Scholar
Malhi, GS, Bassett, D, Boyce, P, et al. Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for mood disorders. Aust N Z J Psychiat. 2015;49(12):10871206.Google Scholar
Mead, GE, Morley, W, Campbell, P, Greig, CA, McMurdo, M, Lawlor, DA. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009(3):CD004366.Google Scholar
Abrantes, AM, Strong, DR, Cohn, A, et al. Acute changes in obsessions and compulsions following moderate-intensity aerobic exercise among patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(7):923927.Google Scholar
Brown, RA, Abrantes, AM, Strong, DR, et al. A pilot study of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise for obsessive compulsive disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195(6):514520.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Davis, ML, Powers, MB, Smits, JA. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis of treatment outcome and moderators. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(1):3341.Google Scholar
Albert, U, Aguglia, A, Chiarle, A, Bogetto, F, Maina, G. Metabolic syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a naturalistic Italian study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013;35(2):154159.Google Scholar
Posadzki, P, Choi, J, Lee, MS, Ernst, E. Yoga for addictions: a systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Focus Alt Complement Ther. 2014;19(1):18.Google Scholar
Shannahoff-Khalsa, DS, Ray, LE, Levine, S, Gallen, CC, Schwartz, BJ, Sidorowich, JJ. Randomized controlled trial of yogic meditation techniques for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectrums. 1999;4(12):3447.Google Scholar
Bhat, S, Varambally, S, Karmani, S, Govindaraj, R, Gangadhar, BN. Designing and validation of a yoga-based intervention for obsessive compulsive disorder. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2016;28(3):327333.Google Scholar
Sarris, J, Kavanagh, DJ, Byrne, G. Adjuvant use of nutritional and herbal medicines with antidepressants, mood stabilizers and benzodiazepines. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44(1): 3241.Google Scholar
Gray, SM, Bloch, MH. Systematic review of proinflammatory cytokines in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2012;14(3):220228.Google Scholar
Rao, NP, Venkatasubramanian, G, Ravi, V, Kalmady, S, Cherian, A, Yc, JR. Plasma cytokine abnormalities in drug-naive, comorbidity-free obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229(3):949952.Google Scholar
Turna, J, Grosman Kaplan, K, Anglin, R, Van Ameringen, M.What’s Bugging the Gut in OCD?” A review of the gut microbiome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(3):171178.Google Scholar
Kantak, PA, Bobrow, DN, Nyby, JG. Obsessive-compulsive-like behaviors in house mice are attenuated by a probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG). Behav Pharmacol. 2014;25(1):7179.Google Scholar
Van Ameringen, M. Probiotic Treatment in Adult Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. NCT02334644. ClinicalTrials.gov, 2017. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02334644?term=probiotics&cond=%22Anxiety+Disorders%22&rank=7 (accessed July 19, 2018).Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×