Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T08:57:31.954Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Policing Terrorism in the Chinese Community: A Critical Analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2021

Enshen Li
Enshen Li*
Affiliation:
TC Beirne School of Law, University of Queensland, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

After the 9/11 incidents, global counter-terrorism efforts have focused increasingly on community policing as a proactive and preventive approach to thwarting terrorism. This article explores the developments, tensions, and prospects of counter-terrorism community policing (“CTCP”) in China. By applying the concepts of police legitimacy and social capital to the normative and operational framework of CTCP, I argue that this vital counter-terrorism endeavour is fraught with problems, for both Chinese police to procure effective civic co-operation and the local community to develop its capacity as a self-reliant player in preventing terrorism. More specifically, community co-operation in China’s CTCP is largely an obligatory process in the form of forced mobilization by local bureaucracies that does not necessarily entail trust and support from citizens based on their legitimacy judgement. My analysis on social capital building in Chinese communities further suggests that both police and citizens are unable to form deep and meaningful partnerships for counter-terrorism. While an authoritarian regime like China is reluctant to cede substantial power and authority to people in most of all aspects of policing, the public has become apathetic towards and alienated from voluntary collaboration with police in formal community affairs—a dichotomy lies between reality and ideal in China’s CTCP.

Keywords

Chinaterrorismcommunity policingprocedural justicesocial capital
Type
Research Article
Information
Asian Journal of Law and Society , Volume 9 , Issue 3 , October 2022 , pp. 466 - 499
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Asian Journal of Law and Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aziz, Sahar F. (2014) “Policing Terrorists in the Community.” 5 Harvard National Security Journal 147–224.Google Scholar
BBC (2013) “Tiananmen Crash: China Police ‘Seek Xinjiang Suspects’,” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-24722898 (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
BBC (2014a) “More than Ten Thousand People Joined the Search, Police have Killed 9 Men,” https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2014/08/140801_xinjiang_raids (accessed 9 December 2019).Google Scholar
BBC (2014b) “People’s War on Terrorism: Students, Vendors and Cobblers Play a Role,” https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2014/06/140623_china_anti_terrorism (accessed 20 October 2019).Google Scholar
Beetham, David (1991) The Legitimation of Power, London: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belkin, Ira (2000) “China’s Criminal Justice System: A Work in Progress.” 6 Washington Journal of Modern China 1–24.Google Scholar
Biddulph, Sarah (2007) Legal Reform and Administrative Detention Powers in China, New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biddulph, Sarah (2015) The Stability Imperative: Human Rights and Law in China, Vancouver: UBC Press.Google Scholar
Bo, Xiang (2018) “Full Transcript: Interview with Xinjiang Government Chief on Counterterrorism, Vocational Education and Training in Xinjiang,” –http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018–10/16/c_137535821.htm (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Boehm, Dana (2009) “China’s Failed War on Terror: Fanning the Flames of Uighur Separatist Violence.” 2 Berkeley Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Law 61–124.Google Scholar
Bouffard, Leana, & Lisa, Muftić (2006) “The “Rural Mystique”: Social Disorganization and Violence beyond Urban Communities.” 7 Western Criminology Review 56–66.Google Scholar
Bovingdon, Gardner (2004) Autonomy in Xinjiang: Han Nationalist Imperatives and Uyghur Discontent, Washington: Policy Studies.Google Scholar
Bray, David (2006) “Building ‘Community’: New Strategies of Governance in Urban China.” 35 Economy and Society 530–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Ben (2007) “Community Policing in Post-September 11 America: A Comment on the Concept of Community-Oriented Counterterrorism.” 8 Police Practice and Research 239–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Karen, & Paul, Johnson (2018) “Police Engagement with Muslim Communities: Breaking out, Breaking in, and Breaking through.” 28 Policing & Society 879–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Charlie (2016) “Uighur Extremists Joining ISIS Poses a Security and Economic Headache for China’s Xi Jinping,” http://time.com/4416585/isis-islamic-state-china-xinjiang-uighur-xi-jinping/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Cao, Liqun (2007) “Returning to Normality Anomie and Crime in China.” 51 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 40–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrabine, Eamonn (2006) Power, Resistance and Discourse: A Genealogy of the Strangeways Prison Riot, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.Google Scholar
Carter, Ashton B., John, Deutch, & Philip, Zelikow (1998) “Catastrophic Terrorism: Tackling the New Danger.” 77 Foreign Affairs 79–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Peng (2013) “The Process of Localizing the Concept of Community.” 6 Urban Insight 165–70.Google Scholar
Chen, Shuqiang, Fung, Kwok-kin, & Hung, Suet-lin (2017) “The Changing Faces of Community Development in China: The Case of Beijing.” 52 Community Development Journal 38–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Xiaoming (2002) “Community and Policing Strategies: A Chinese Approach to Crime Control.” 12 Policing & Society 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherney, Adrian, & Jason, Hartley (2017) “Community Engagement to Tackle Terrorism and Violent Extremism: Challenges, Tensions and Pitfalls.” 27 Policing & Society 750–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherney, Adrian, & Kristina, Murphy (2013) “Policing Terrorism with Procedural Justice: The Role of Police Legitimacy and Law Legitimacy.” 46 Australia & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 403–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chin, Josh (2017) “Twenty Days in Xinjiang: How China’s Surveillance State Overwhelms Daily Life,” https://www.wsj.com/articles/twelve-days-in-xinjiang-how-chinas-surveillance-state-overwhelms-daily-life-1513700355 (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
China News (2014) “Beijing 10 Wan ‘Xiaorenwu’ Qianfu Fankong, Baokuo Songshuigong Baojieyuan [100,000 ‘Undercover Laypersons’ in Beijing for Covert Counter-Terrorism Effort, including Water Deliverymen and Cleaners],” –http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2014/07–28/6429818.shtml (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
China News (2016) “Sichuan Gongbu Jiuda Fankong Dianxing Anli, Wangluo Chuanbo Baokong Shijian Zhan Qicheng [Sichuan Publicized 9 Typical Cases of Terrorism Offences, Seventy Percent Involves Spreading Terrorist Violence Virtually],” –http://www.12377.cn/txt/2016–12/20/content_9233029.htm (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Chinese Human Rights Defenders (2003) “Re-Education Through Labor Abuses Continue Unabated: Overhaul Long Overdue,” https://www.nchrd.org/2009/02/research-reports-article-2/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Clarke, Michael (2008) “China’s ‘War on Terror’ in Xinjiang: Human Security and the Causes of Violent Uighur Separatism.” 20 Terrorism and Political Violence 271–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, Michael (2010) “Widening the Net: China’s Anti-Terror Laws and Human Rights in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.” 14 International Journal of Human Rights 542–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, Michael (2018) “Xinjiang’s ‘Transformation through Education’ Camps,” https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/xinjiangs-transformation-through-education-camps (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Clarke, Ronald, & Graeme, Newman (2007) “Police and Prevention of Terrorism.” 1 Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 9–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloud, David, & Ian, Johnson (2004) “In Post-9/11 World, Chinese Dissidents Pose U.S. Dilemma,” https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB109149176842581209 (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Coleman, James (1988) “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” 94 American Journal of Sociology 95–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dazhong (2016) “Ji’nan She Fankongfa Diyian (the First Case Concerning the CTL in Ji’nan),” http://sd.dzwww.com/sdnews/201604/t20160425_14196751.htm (accessed 4 December 2019).Google Scholar
Deng, Xiaogang, & Ann, Cordilia (1999) “To Get Rich Is Glorious: Rising Expectations, Declining Control, and Escalating Crime in Contemporary China.” 43 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 211–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derleth, James, & Daniel, Koldyk (2004) “The Shequ Experiment: Grassroots Political Reform in Urban China.” 13 Journal of Contemporary China 747–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, Drew, & Deirdre, Weiss (2009) “Community Policing: Looking to Tomorrow.” Department of Community Oriented Policing Services 1–56.Google Scholar
Dodd, Vikram (2017) “Police Cuts Hit UK Fight against Terrorism, Says Former Security Chief,” https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jun/06/police-cuts-hit-uk-fight-against-terrorism-says-former-security-chief (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Dutton, Michael (1992) Policing and Punishment in China: From Patriarchy to “The People”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, Patrick (2014) “Lone Wolf Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Examination of Capabilities and Countermeasures.” 26 Terrorism & Political Violence 211–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Famularo, Julia (2018) “Fighting the Enemy with Fists and Daggers,” in Clarke, M., ed., Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in China: Domestic and Foreign Policy Dimensions, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Feng, Chongyi (2013) “Preserving Stability and Rights Protection: Conflict or Coherence?” 42 Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 21–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, Antony (2009) “The ‘New Terrorism’: Revolution or Evolution.” 7 Political Studies Review 195–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finley, Joanne S (2019) “Securitization, Insecurity and Conflict in Contemporary Xinjiang: Has PRC Counter-Terrorism Evolved into State Terror?” 38 Central Asian Survey 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Free Radio Asia (2017) “Xinjiang Dangju Kuangda Fankong Shuzihua Jiankong Wuchu Buzai [Xinjiang Authorities Expand Counter-Terrorism and Digital Surveillance],” https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/shaoshuminzu/yl-12192017123111.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Friedmann, Robert R., & Cannon, William J. (2007) “Homeland Security and Community Policing: Competing or Complementing Public Safety Policies.” 4 Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fu, Hualing (2005) “Re-Education Through Labour in Historical Perspective.” 184 The China Quarterly 811–30.Google Scholar
German, Michael (2014) “Stigmatizing Boston’s Muslim Communities Is No Way to Build Trust,” https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/stigmatizing-boston-muslim-community-no-way-build-trust (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Gibson, James L. (1991) “Institutional Legitimacy, Procedural Justice, and Compliance with Supreme Court Decisions: A Question of Causality.” 25 Law and Society Review 631–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gohel, Sajjan (2014) “The ‘Seventh Stage’ of Terrorism in China.” 7 CTC Sentinel 16–8.Google Scholar
Greitens, Sheena C., Lee, Myunghee, & Yazici, Emir (2020) “Counterterrorism and Preventive Repression: China’s Changing Strategy in Xinjiang.” 44 International Security 9–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guo, Rongxin (2015) China’s Spatial (Dis)Integration: Political Economy of the Interethnic Unrest in Xinjiang, Kidlington: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Guo, Sujian (2013) Chinese Politics and Government: Power, Ideology, and Organization, London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hanniman, Wayne (2008) “Canadian Muslims, Islamophobia and National Security Royal Canadian Mounted Police.” 36 International Journal on Law Crime and Justice 271–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harkin, Diarmaid (2015) “Police Legitimacy, Ideology and Qualitative Methods: A Critique of Procedural Justice Theory.” 15 Criminology and Criminal Justice 594–612.Google Scholar
Hawdon, James (2008) “Legitimacy, Trust, Social Capital, and Policing Styles: A Theoretical Statement.” 11 Police Quarterly 182–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heberer, Thomas (2009) “Evolvement of Citizenship in Urban China or Authoritarian Communitarianism? Neighbourhood Development, Community Participation, and Autonomy.” 18 Journal of Contemporary China 491–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, Caitlin, Joey, Lee, Reece, Pelley, et al. (2018) “Left behind on the Road towards ‘Human Rights with Chinese Characteristics’: China’s Universal Periodical Review and the Arbitrary Detention of Stagmatized Communities,” China Law & Policy, https://chinalawandpolicy.com/tag/administrative-detention/ (accessed 4 December 2019).Google Scholar
Hoffman, Bruce (1998) Inside Terrorism, New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Horgan, John (2009) Walking Away from Terrorism: Accounts of Disengagement from Radical and Extremist Movements, London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, Ping (2015) “Six Major Characteristics of Terrorism in China with Special Characteristics,” https://www.hrichina.org/en/china-rights-forum/six-major-characteristics-terrorism-china-special-characteristics (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Hu, Rong (2016) “The Impact of Chinese Political Efficacy and Political Participation on Their Trust in the Police.” 3 The Journal of Chinese Sociology 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, Shiyuan (2012) “Chinese Wrongful Convictions: Causes and Prevention.” 80 University of Cincinnati Law Review 1219–43.Google Scholar
Human Rights in China (2001) “Re-Education through Labor: A Summary of Regulatory Issues and Concerns,” https://www.hrichina.org/en/publications/hric-report/reeducation-through-labor-summary-regulatory-issues-and-concerns (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Huq, Aziz (2017) “Community-Led Terrorism.” 40 Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 1038–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huq, Aziz, Tom, Tyler, & Schulhofer, Stephen J. (2011) “Mechanisms for Eliciting Cooperation in Counterterrorism Policing: Evidence from the United Kingdom.” 8 Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 728–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffreys, Elaine M. (2012) “Modern China’s Idols: Heroes, Role Models, Stars and Celebrities.” 9 Portal Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Shanhe, Yuning, Wu, & Jin, Wang (2011) “Citizens’ Obligation to Obey Law: An Empirical Study of Guangzhou.” 57 International Journal on Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 495–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Tao (2019) “The Extension of ‘the Fengqiao Experience’: ‘One Police Officer, One Village’ Searches and Examines the Situation of Religion in Villages,” https://zh.bitterwinter.org/fengqiao-experience-extension-one-village-one-police/ (accessed 18 October 2019).Google Scholar
Jing, Yu (2014) “The Ministry of Public Security: Generously Rewarding Whistle-Blowers for Tipping off Authorities on Terrorism-Related Information,” https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20140627003039 (accessed 12 October 2019).Google Scholar
Kanat, Kilic (2014) “Repression in China and Its Consequences in Xinjiang,” https://www.hudson.org/research/10480-repression-in-china-and-its-consequences-in-xinjiang (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Klausen, Jytte (2009) “British Counter-Terrorism after 7/7: Adapting Community Policing to the Fight against Domestic Terrorism.” 35 Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 403–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kung, Lap-Yan (2006) “National Identity and Ethno-Religious Identity: A Critical Inquiry into Chinese Religious Policy, with Reference to the Uighurs in Xinjiang.” 34 Religion, State & Society 375–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurtulus, Ersun (2011) “The ‘New Terrorism’ and Its Critics.” 34 Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 476–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, Yung-Lien, Liqun, Cao, & Jihong, Zhao (2010) “The Impact of Political Entity on Confidence in Legal Authorities: A Comparison between China and Taiwan.” 38 Journal of Criminal Justice 934–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, Robert, & Tim, Parsons (2017) “Community-Based Counterterrorism Policing: Recommendations for Practitioners.” 40 Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 1054–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laqueur, Walter (2000) The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leibold, James (2020) “Surveillance in China’s Xinjiang Region: Ethnic Sorting, Coercion, and Inducement.” 29 Journal of Contemporary China 46–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leng, Shao-Chuan (1977) “The Role of Law in the People’s Republic of China as Reflecting Mao Tse-Tung’s Influence.” 65 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 356–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Anthony (2016) “Centralization of Power in the Pursuit of Law-Based Governance: Legal Reform in China under the Xi Administration.” 2 China Perspectives 63–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Siyu, & Jianhong, Liu (2018) “Police Legitimacy and Compliance with the Law among Chinese Youth.” 62 International Journal on Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 3536–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Yuqi, Fulong, Wu, Ye, Liu, et al. (2017) “Changing Neighbourhood Cohesion under the Impact of Urban Redevelopment: A Case Study of Guangzhou, China.” 38 Urban Geography 266–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lubman, Stanley (2014) “Arrested, Detained: A Guide to Navigating China’s Police Powers,” https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/08/12/arrested-detained-a-guide-to-navigating-chinas-police-powers/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Lyons, William (2002) “Partnerships, Information and Public Safety, Community Policing in a Time of Terror.” 25 Policing: An International Journal on Police Strategies and Management 530–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macbean, Nicola (2016) “Adressing ‘Hide’ and ‘Seek’ Scandal: Restoring the Legitimacy of Kanshousuo,” in Nesossi, E., Biddulph, S., Sapio, F., et al., eds., Legal Reforms and Deprivation of Liberty in Contemporary China, London: Routledge, 112–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madon, Natasha, Kristina, Murphy, & Elise, Sargeant (2017) “Promoting Police Legitimacy among Disengaged Minority Groups: Does Procedural Justice Matter More.” 17 Criminology and Criminal Justice 624–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahan, Sue, & Griset, Pamala P. (2008) Terrorism in Perspective, London: SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Mai, Jun (2019) “Be Vigilant about Threats to China’s Stability and Reforms, Xi Jinping Tells Top Cadres,” https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/2183067/be-vigilant-about-threats-chinas-stability-and-reforms-xi (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Makin, David, & Otwin, Marenin (2017) “Let’s Dance: Variations of Partnerships in Community Policing.” 11 Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 421–36.Google Scholar
Meng, Lan (2016) “The Research on Public Acceptance of Community Corrections.” 609 Management Observer 3–8.Google Scholar
Merton, Robert K. (1938) “Social Structure and Anomie.” 3 American Sociological Review 672–82.Google Scholar
Messner, Steven F. (1988) “Merton’s ‘Social Structure and Anomie’: The Road Not Taken.” 9 Deviant Behaviour 33–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondak, Jeffery (1993) “Institutional Legitimacy and Procedural Justice: Re-Examining the Question of Causality.” 27 Law and Society Review 599–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mooney, Paul (2013) “The Tiananmen Square Car Crash: Terrorism or Accident?” https://www.forbes.com/sites/paulmooney/2013/10/31/the-tiananmen-square-car-crash-terrorism-or-accident/#f7a3cb52da19 (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Mumford, Andrew (2018) “Theory-Testing Uyghur Terrorism in China.” 12 Perspectives on Terrorism 18–26.Google Scholar
Murphy, Kristina, Natasha, Madon, & Adrian, Cherney (2017) “Promoting Muslims’ Cooperation with Police in Counter-Terrorism: The Interaction between Procedural Justice, Police Legitimacy and Law Legitimacy.” 40 Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 544–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, John (2005) “Policing Terrorism: A Threat to Community Policing or Just a Shift in Priorities?” 6 Police Practice and Research 347–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pantucci, Raffaello (2017) China’s Growing Terrorist Threats and Response, Paris: Asian Trends #1.Google Scholar
Park, Robert E. (1952) Human Communities: The City and Human Ecology, New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Peerenboom, Randall (2004) “Out of Pan and Into the Fire: Well-Intended but Misguided Recommendations to Eliminate All Forms of Administrative Detention in China.” 98 Northwestern University Law Review 991–1104.Google Scholar
Pickering, Sharon, David, Wright-Neville, Judith, McCulloch, et al. (2007) Counter-Terrorism Policing for Culturally Diverse Communities, Canberra: Australia Research Council.Google Scholar
Pino, Nathan W. (2001) “Community Policing and Social Capital.” 24 Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 200–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pokalova, Elena (2013) “Authoritarian Regimes against Terrorism: Lessons from China.” 6 Critical Studies on Terrorism 279–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, Philip B. (2013) “Terrorism in China: Growing Treats with Global Implications.” 7 Strategic Studies Quarterly 70–92.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Qi, Dongtao (2014) “Chinese Society: Social Stability and Social Governance.” 6 East Asian Policy 55–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Jefferey (2016) “Ideas and Influence: Scholarship as a Harbinger of Counterterrorism Institutions, Policies, and Laws in the People’s Republic of China.” 28 Terrorism & Political Violence 827–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renmin (2017) “Xiaoxiao Shequ Jingwu Lide ‘Dachuangxin’ [‘Big Innovation’ in Small Policing Offices],” –http://legal.people.com.cn/n1/2017/1017/c42510–29591209.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Renmin (2018) “Kunming Banjie <Fankongbu Zhuyi Fa>Xingzhengan 224 Qi Xingzheng Juliu 23 Ren [Kunming Handled 224 Administrative Cases in relation to the CTL and 23 Individuals Were Detained],” –http://yn.people.com.cn/n2/2018/0823/c378439–31966460.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Xingzhengan+224+Qi+Xingzheng+Juliu+23+Ren+[Kunming+Handled+224+Administrative+Cases+in+relation+to+the+CTL+and+23+Individuals+Were+Detained],”+–http://yn.people.com.cn/n2/2018/0823/c378439–31966460.html+(accessed+4+July+2019).>Google Scholar
Roberts, Sean R. (2018) “The Biopolitics of China’s War on Terror and the Exclusion of the Uyghurs.” 50 Critical Asian Studies 232–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Nicholas (1999) Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sands, Gary (2014) “China and the ISIS Threat: Already Grappling with a Home-Grown Terrorism Problem, Should Beijing Fear the Islamic State?” https://thediplomat.com/2014/09/china-and-the-isis-threat/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Sapio, Flora, Susan, Trevaskes, Sarah, Biddulph, et al. (2017) “The Expression of Justice in China,” in F. Sapio, S. Trevaskes, S. Biddulph, et al., eds., Justice: The Chinese Experience, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schanzer, David, Charles, Kurzman, Jessica, Toliver, et al. (2016) The Challenge and Promise of Using Community Policing Strategies to Prevent Violent Extremism: A Call for Community Partnerships with Law Enforcement to Enhance Public Safety, Washington: The US Department of Justice.Google Scholar
Scoggins, Suzanne (2018) “Policing Modern China.” 3 China Law and Society Review 79–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scoggins, Suzanne, & Kevin, O’Brien (2016) “China’s Unhappy Police.” 56 Asian Survey 225–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shan, Wei, & Xiaojuan, Ping (2015) “Rising Terrorism and China’s New Policy in Xinjiang.” 6 East Asian Policy 113–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shang, Mengqi (2011) “The Research on Urban Community Participation: A Case Study on the Yuyuan Community in Ji’nan.” 2 Chinese Academy of Social Science 1–8.Google Scholar
Shepard, Christina (2017) “China Facing Intensified Threat of Religious Infiltration, Extremism: Official,” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-religion/china-facing-intensified-threat-of-religious-infiltration-extremism-official-idUSKCN1BN09Y (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Shieh, Leslie, & John, Friedman (2008) “Restructuring Urban Governance: Community Construction in Contemporary China.” 12 City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy and Action 18395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Jeffrey (2016) Lone Wolf Terrorism, Understanding the Growing Threat, London: Prometheus.Google Scholar
Solinger, Dorothy (1995) “China’s Urban Transients in the Transition from Socialism and Collapse of Community ‘Urban Public Goods Regime’.” 27 Comparative Politics 127–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaaij, Ramón (2010) “The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism: An Assessment.” 33 Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 854–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalek, Basia (2010) “Community Policing, Trust and Muslim Communities in Relation to ‘New Terrorism’.” 38 Politics and Policy 789–815.Google Scholar
Spalek, Basia (2014) “Community Engagement for Counterterrorism in Britain: An Exploration of the Role of ‘Connectors’ in Countering Takfiri Jihadist Terrorism.” 37 Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 825–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalek, Basia, & Laura, McDonald (2010) “Terror Crime Prevention: Constructing Muslim Practices and Beliefs as ‘Anti-Social’ and ‘Extreme’ through Contest 2.” 9 Social Policy and Society 123–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spencer, Alexander (2006) “Questioning the Concept of ‘New Terrorism’.” 8 Peace, Conflict and Development 1–33.Google Scholar
Staniforth, Andrew (2014) Preventing Terrorism and Violent Extremism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sun, Ivan Y., & Wu, Yuning (2010) “Chinese Policing in a Time of Transition, 1978–2008.” 26 Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 20–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, Ivan Y., Rong, Hu, & Yuning, Wu (2012) “Social Capital, Political Participation, and Trust in the Police in Urban China.” 45 Australia & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 87–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, Ivan Y., Yuning, Wu, Rong, Hu, et al. (2017) “Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Public Cooperation with Police: Des Western Wisdom Hold in China?” 54 Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 454–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svolik, Milan (2009) “Power Sharing and Leadership Dynamics in Authoritarian Regimes.” 53 American Journal of Political Science 477–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, Ning, & Fei, Sun (2017) “Shequ Construction and Service Development in Urban China: An Examination of the Shenzhen Model.” 52 Community Development Journal 10–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, Wenfang (2016) Populist Authoritarianism: Chinese Political Culture and Regime Sustainability, New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankebe, Justice (2009) “Public Cooperation with the Police in Ghana: Does Procedural Fairness Matter?” 47 Criminology 1265–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankebe, Justice (2013) “Viewing Things Differently: The Dimensions of Public Perceptions of Police Legitimacy.” 51 Criminology 103–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, Murray S. (2017) “Beijing’s New National Intelligence Law: From Defense to Offense,” https://www.lawfareblog.com/beijings-new-national-intelligence-law-defense-offense (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Tanner, Murray S., & James, Bellacqua (2016) China’s Response to Terrorism, Washington: US-China Economic and Security Commission.Google Scholar
Tiezzi, Shannon (2013) “The Mass Line Campaign in the 21st Century,” https://thediplomat.com/2013/12/the-mass-line-campaign-in-the-21st-century/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Tong, Yanqi, & Shaohua, Lei (2011) “Large-Scale Mass Incidents in China.” 2 East Asian Policy 23–33.Google Scholar
Toops, Stanley (2016) “Spatial Results of the 2010 Census in Xinjiang,” http://theasiadialogue.com/2016/03/07/spatial-results-of-the-2010-census-in-xinjiang/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2006) “Severe and Swift Justice in China.” 47 British Journal of Criminology 23–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan, Sarah, Biuddulp, Elissa, Nesossi, et al. (2014) “Stability and the Law,” in S. Trevaskes, S. Biuddulp, E. Nesossi, et al., eds., The Politics of Law and Stability in China, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tribune, The (2018) “China Justifies Re-education Camps in Xinjiang; Says it Prevented Terror Attacks,” https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/world/china-justifies-re-education-camps-in-xinjiang-says-it-prevented-terror-attacks/669548.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom (2003) “Procedural Justice, Legitimacy and the Rule of Law.” 30 Crime and Justice 283–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom (2006) “Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy and Legitimation.” 57 Annual Review of Psychology 375–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom (2008) “Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why Do People Help the Police Fight Crime in Their Communities.” 6 Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 231–75.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom, Stephen, Schulhofer, & Aziz, Huq (2010) “Legitimacy and Deterrence Effects in Counter-Terrorism Policing: A Study of Muslim Americans.” 44 Law & Society Review 365–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidino, Lorenzo (2010) Countering Radicalization in American: Lesson from Europe, London: Special Report to United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Wang, Xiaohai, & Denis, Wong (2012) “Police Social Service Work in China: Community Policing with Chinese Characteristics.” 9 Asia Pacific Journal of Police and Criminal Justice 34–54.Google Scholar
Wayne, Martin (2009) “Inside China’s War on Terrorism.” 18 Journal of Contemporary China 249–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei, Pan (2006) “Toward a Consultative Rule of Law Regime in China,” in Zhao, S. S., ed., Debating Political Reform in China: Rule of Law vs. Democratization, London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wei, Zeng (2014) “Xi Jinping Liang Yue 15 Ci Ti Fankong: Tuchu ‘Dixian Siwei’ ‘Qunfang Qunzhi’ [Xi Jinping Speaks 15 Times about Counter-Terrorism, Highlighting ‘Bottom-Line Thinking’ and ‘Public Prevention and Mass Force’],” –http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2014/0428/c1001–24952160.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Weine, Steven, Ahmed, Younis, & Chloe, Polutnik (2017) Community Policing to Counter Violent Extremism: A Process Evaluation in Los Angeles, Washington: US Department of Homeland Security.Google Scholar
Weisberg, Robert (2003) “Restorative Justice and the Dangers of Community.” 1 Utah Law Review 343–75.Google Scholar
Wen, Philip (2013) “Turkestan Islamic Party Islamist Group Warns of More Attacks such as Tiananmen,” –https://www.smh.com.au/world/turkestan-islamic-party-islamist-group-warns-of-more-attacks-such-as-tiananmen-20131125–2y632.html#ixzz2lk63rHcm (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Wong, Kam C. (2001) “The Philosophy of Community Policing in China.” 4 Police Quarterly 186–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, Kam C. (2002) “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: The Road to Reform in the 1990s.” 42 British Journal of Criminology 281–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodman, Sophia (2016) “Local Politics, Local Citizenship? Socialized Governance in Contemporary China.” 226 The China Quarterly 342–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Yuning, & Sun, Ivan Y. (2009) “Chinese Trust in Police: The Case of China.” 12 Police Quarterly 170–91.Google Scholar
Wu, Yuning, Jiang, Shanhe, & Eric, Lambert (2011) “Citizen Support for Community Policing in China.” 34 Policing: An International Journal on Police Strategies and Management 285–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, Ying, Tong, Yunping, & Fenggang, Yang (2017) “Does Ideological Education in China Suppress Trust in Religion and Foster Trust in Government?” 8 Religions 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, Yue (2013) “Rising Central Spending on Public Security and the Dilemma Facing Grassroots Officials in China.” 42 Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 87–91.Google Scholar
Xu, Boyang (2009) “The Case Study on the Participatory Behaviours of Urban Residents: An Empirical Investigation based on Three Communities in Shenzhen,” http://sociology.cssn.cn/webpic/web/sociology/upload/2010/11/d20101124092143022.pdf (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Xu, Boyang, & Huiqing, Peng (2009) The Study on Urban Community Participation, Wuhan: Huazhong University of Science and Technology Press.Google Scholar
Xu, Qingwen (2007) “Community Participation in Urban China: Identifying Mobilization Factors.” 36 Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 622–42.Google Scholar
Xu, Qingwen, Gao, Jianguo, & Yan, Miuchung (2005) “Community Centres in Urban China.” 13 Journal of Community Practice 73–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, Qingwen, Douglas, Perkins, & Julia, Chow (2010) “Sense of Community, Neighbouring, and Social Capital as Predictors of Local Political Participation in China.” 45 American Journal of Community Psychology 259–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yan, Miuchung, & Jianguo, Gao (2007) “Social Engineering of Community Building: Examination of Policy Process and Characteristics of Community Construction in China.” 42 Community Development Journal 222–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yardley, Jim (2005) “Issue in China: Many in Jails Without Trial,” https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/09/world/asia/issue-in-china-many-in-jails-without-trial.html (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Young, Graham (1980) “On the Mass Line.” 6 Modern China 225–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeng, Jinghan (2016) The Chinese Communist Party’s Capacity to Rule, New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zenz, Adrian (2018) “China’s Domestic Security Spending: An Analysis of Available Data.” 18 China Brief 1–6.Google Scholar
Zenz, Adrian, & James, Leibold (2020) “Securitizing Xinjiang: Police Recruitment, Informal Policing and Ethnic Minority Co-Optation.” 242 The China Quarterly 324–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhai, Yida (2017) “Values of Deference to Authority in Japan and China.” 58 International Journal of Comparative Sociology 120–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhong, Lena Y. (2009) “Community Policing in China: Old Wine in New Bottles.” 10 Police Practice and Research 157–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Zunyou (2016) “China’s Comprehensive Counter-Terrorism Law,” https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/chinas-comprehensive-counter-terrorism-law/ (accessed 4 July 2019).Google Scholar
Zhou, Zunyou (2017) “Chinese Strategy for De-radicalization.” 31 Terrorism & Political Violence 1187–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Zunyou (2018) “Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in China: Domestic and Foreign Policy Dimensions,” in Clarke, M., ed., Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in China: Domestic and Foreign Policy in China, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 75–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhu, Yushu (2015) “Toward Community Engagement: Can the Built Environment Help? Grassroots Participation and Communal Space in Chinese Urban Communities.” 46 Habitat International 44–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar