As I sit and write this, it’s a beautiful autumn day in England, and the harvest is well underway. At home in New Zealand, we are just starting to see signs of spring, after a long cold winter. Wherever you are in the world, there is always something agricultural to see and note that as always, the cycle of crop and animal production continues. However there are some interesting effects of the economic woes many countries have gone through recently (and many still are). Not least, for someone like me who travels around as part of my work, is the foreign exchange rate differences. Certainly the Euro and the Pound are both very weak against the NZ dollar – with the usual benefits and problems that entails. It will be interesting to see how international trade copes with this. Living in a country vastly dependent on agricultural exporting markets, I have certainly had many discussions with colleagues about how the strength of our currency could impact overseas sales of meat, milk and eggs. We shall wait and see.

As for the WPSJ, we continue to receive ever more varied papers – as you will see from this latest issue, with topics ranging from branding and economics, to mineral nutrition and GM feed materials. Our ratings this year have held well against the 1.6 high in 2010, which is very gratifying. However we are increasingly struggling, as are other journals, to find reviewers. This adds substantial amounts of time in processing a paper, so if any members out there are willing to help review papers in their area of expertise, do let us know in the Editorial Office.

Although many of you will receive this well after the event, I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate Professor Ravi Ravindran of Massey University on his recent award from PSA – the first non-American to receive such an honour. Ravi is a much respected poultry scientist who is highly active in his own research as well as post-graduate supervision, so this is very well deserved. I trust you enjoy this final issue of 2011 – we are already hard at work on the 2012 issues, including organising centennial papers from the individual working groups, looking at how each discipline in poultry science has changed over the lifetime of the WPSJ. Additionally we have the 2012 Wold Poultry Congress in Brazil to look forward to – and trust that will generate a lot of potential review papers in novel and emerging areas.

Dr Lucy Waldron

Editor

Calcium is the most prevalent mineral in the body and is important for many physiological processes. However, the amount of calcium in modern diets has both economic and nutritional consequences for producers. Dietary calcium has been shown to reduce the efficacy of both endogenous and exogenous phytases resulting in decreased phytate-phosphorus availability, increased phosphorus excretion as well as facilitating the formation of mineral-phytate complexes. Reducing the concentration of dietary calcium has been reported to improve phytase efficacy and phytate-phosphorus availability, however, this is often at the expense of optimal skeletal integrity. Choice feeding employs the principle that poultry have the ability to select a nutritionally balanced diet from multiple sources and previous studies have shown that poultry have a calcium specific appetite. However, the evaluation of choice feeding systems for broilers has predominantly focussed on the effects of providing separate sources of protein and energy concentrates. Though literature is available for laying hens, scant information is available pertaining to choice feeding of a separate calcium source for broilers. This paper reviews the available information on choice feeding systems in poultry with focus on the application of this in broiler production systems.

Egg fat is of considerable importance in the nutrition of the developing chick as a source of energy and essential fatty acids such as linoleic (18:2 n-6) and α-linolenic (18:3 n-3) acids. During incubation, yolk lipids provide fatty acids that are utilized for energy, synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-rich membrane phospholipids, and eicosanoids by the embryo. Eicosanoids derived from n-6 fatty acid are more potent and pro-inflammatory than eicosanoids derived from n-3 fatty acids.

Two models of early life programming as affected by n-3 PUFA are investigated. Egg PUFA enrichment through breeder hen diet (pre-hatch or in ovo) or early post-hatch (within first 5 hours) feeding is investigated. Early access to nutrients (pre- and early post-hatch) is important because in broiler hatchlings that are selected for rapid early growth much of the immune system development occurs early in life. However, the current industry practice of feeding breeding hens diets high in n-6 fatty acids, limits the supply of essential n-3 PUFA in the hatchling. Early access to n-3 PUFA through in ovo or early post-hatch diet led to: (1) increase in the retention of n-3 PUFA in cell membranes, (2) reduction in plasma non-esterified fatty acids, (3) reduced production of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, (4) suppression of cell-mediated immunity, and (5) alteration in cyclooxygenase-2 protein expression. The effects of an early exposure persisted from 14 to 35 days in different tissues and cells.

Given the fact that broiler birds are raised for 39 to 56 days, and that the effect of pre-hatch and early post-hatch nutrition persists for up to and over 36-47% of post-hatch life, using an early life programming approach will generate new knowledge about the role of maternal and early post-hatch diet in enhancing bird health and welfare.

The reduction of the prevalence of zoonoses and zoonotic agents like campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis requires eradication, control and monitoring measures to protect both animal and public health. Therefore, it is important to identify the main sources of infections within the poultry production chain. As the latest EFSA results show, these zoonotic agents were mostly found on fresh poultry meat as well as in live poultry. Consequently, the main entrance paths have to be identified directly at farm level. Based on a literature review, the 112 risk factors for an introduction of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. infections were summarised and attributed to 14 risk categories such as farm management, biosecurity, staff hygiene and carcass handling. Afterwards, the main risk factors were identified by elicitation of expert opinion using the Delphi methodology. In the explorative study, an international expert panel defined and weighted the relative importance of the risk categories and risk factors within a three-stage procedure. According to the working hypothesis, risk factors related to hygiene in the poultry house as well as external service crews are the main determinants for infection. Based on the results an evaluation and assessment scheme for poultry farms will be developed. Furthermore, the results can help to assess the status of poultry farms, to raise awareness in farmers and their staff for relevant farm management techniques within education and training manuals.

Genetically modified (GM) plants constitute an increasingly significant part of the crops available on the feed market. To date, the most common GM plants have been those with enhanced agronomic traits. Known as ‘first-generation transgenic plants’, they are substantially equivalent to materials from conventional, parental plant lines. Recently, intensive experimental work using genetic engineering methods, have resulted in the production of transgenic plants with substantial changes in chemical composition, these are referred to as second-generation GM plants. The main objective of such transgenesis is to improve the nutritional properties of crops by increasing the level of desirable substances or decreasing the quantity of harmful compounds in the seeds. This review discusses the use of GM crops with enhanced nutritional properties as feed materials for poultry. On the basis of the information presented, it can be concluded that GM crops with improved nutritional value, enhanced available phosphorus content, an increased concentration of limiting amino acids, or containing genes expressing transgenic enzymes or antimicrobial substances could offer poultry producers considerable benefits.

The food industry operates in an explicitly dynamic environment which demands constant adjustments and responses. The purpose of this paper is to identify important elements of brand positioning by reviewing literature and research into successful poultry brands in Slovenia. A investigation into leading Slovenian poultry brands was used to illustrate the importance of certain elements in repositioning brands in competitive markets. The analysis of competitors in the food market in Slovenia, Austria, Germany, Czech Republic and Switzerland, the analysis of the branding, the results of primary qualitative market research, and the development and testing of possible concepts all offer a basic starting-point for new market positioning. The method used for the implementation of the primary research and for the subsequent testing of the concept was via focus groups. The presented conceptual model for strategic positioning of a brand in a competitive market of high-volume products can enable the definition of various concepts for the new positioning in markets.

Heat stress can induce hyperthermia in poultry. A reduction in heat load can be achieved by increasing the possibilities for dissipation, decreasing the level of heat production or by changing the thermal production pattern within a day. Strategies to reduce the negative effects of heat stress can be based on a specific feeding strategy, such as restricted feeding. Feed that is offered long enough before a hot period can ameliorate the harmful effects of high temperature. Another strategy may be to use choice feeding from different feed ingredients, rich in protein or in energy. With such self-selection, the chicken may adjust its intake of individual components, allowing the bird to optimise the heat load associated with the metabolism of the ingested nutrients. Additional promising strategies involve offering a choice between feeds with a different feed particle size or structure. A large particle size contributes to the development of the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT), especially the gizzard and the caeca. A large gizzard will maximize the grinding process and potentially ease digestion down the GIT, thereby reducing heat production associated with digestive processing. Also wet feeding may be profitable under heat stress conditions as well. Feeding wet diets may facilitate an increased water intake and larger particle sizes can limit water excretion in droppings, resulting in more water being available for evaporation during panting, hence cooling the bird. In conclusion, these feeding strategies may help to reduce heat production peaks, facilitate evaporative activity and/or decreases the heat load, resulting in beneficial effects on performance and health of the bird kept in more tropical areas worldwide.

This paper reviews a double-bootstrap data envelopment analysis of the performance of the Greek poultry sector for the period of 1994-2007. The purpose for implementing this method is to obtain consistent inferences in measuring technical efficiency and in identifying its determinants. The findings suggest that on average, technical inefficiency is present in the Greek poultry industry. Under the variable return to scale specification, technical efficiency decreased to 90% in 2007 from 94% in 1994. In order to explain the factors influencing technical efficiency, the efficiency scores estimated in this study were regressed by using specific variables of sample firms and industry context. The results of the regression analysis show statistically significant positive impacts on performance are factors like market size, productive flexibility and being a member of a firm group, with size and innovation activity of the firm being negative influences. In contrast, the integration of Greece into European Economic and Monetary Union and several other capabilities of firms, related to age, vertical integration, capital intensity and skill of employees, did not have any influence. These results may help managers and policy-makers to determine adequate policies and practices for achieving performance.

Avian disease, regarded as one of the crucial aspects influencing poultry production, has restricted the development of the poultry industry for a long period. Although traditional approaches, e.g. vaccination and bio-security measures, have played an indispensable role in diagnosing, treating and preventing diseases, poultry are still threatened by various diseases. Nowadays, with the development of molecular and quantitative genetics, some poultry diseases can be addressed by breeding for disease resistance. In this paper, the research progress of resistance breeding in poultry is reviewed, including genetics, methods, challenges and opportunities for the poultry industry.

Poultry plays an important role in the livelihood of rural communities in developing countries. Rural poultry (RP) accounts for about 80% of the world's poultry stocks in many developing countries. Thus, RP production is a valuable asset to the local human population despite its relatively low productive performance of 40 to 60 eggs per year and 1.5 to 1.7 kg body weight at maturity. RP contributes significantly to rural livelihood and overall population well-being by providing cash income, satisfying religious and socio-cultural needs, utilising spare family time and satisfying the family's nutritional needs. Efforts are therefore needed from all stake-holders for active participation in RP, geared towards strengthening and improving the development of RP production which had continuously proved to be an effective tool in fighting poverty, providing food security and improving rural livelihood.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, Dr D. Grastilleur, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.