Small mammals are routinely live-trapped and subsequently handled for a range of ecological and behavioural studies. Despite the techniques commonly employed being potentially stressful for the individual animals involved, it has hitherto been difficult to quantify the physiological impact. Here, we report on the first instance of using the Leukocyte Coping Capacity technique (LCC) in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) to investigate the physiological impact of routine trapping and handling techniques. Twenty microlitres of blood were obtained from 40 animals, of which 25 were handled following standard protocols and 15 were not. We found that even a short period of acute stress is sufficient to trigger an immune response which was measurable using the LCC technique. These results further validate the use of the LCC technique for measuring the physiological impact of standard trapping and handling treatments on wild mammals.

Animal well-being and enrichment continue to gain importance in the maintenance of primates living in captivity. Positive reinforcement training (PRT) and/or playing interaction have been shown to be effective in improving the well-being of several species of primates. This research study evaluated the effects of applying a combination of these two techniques (training/playing therapy) on a group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). The effects of this combination on the behaviour of captive primates have been given very little attention to date. The behaviour of a group of seven females was recorded in two different phases at Barcelona Zoo: before (periods 1 and 2) and after (periods 3 and 4) a series of changes were made to the composition of this social group. In each period, two phases were distinguished: i) baseline condition, after the subjects became used to the researcher, focal recordings were made of the group's regular behaviour and, ii) experimental condition, the training and playing sessions (‘gorilla play’) with two specific subjects began one hour before the group went to the outdoor facility. The frequency and duration of the behaviour observed in each of the recording conditions were compared. The results showed positive changes in the gorillas’ behaviour: stereotypies, interactions with the public, aggression between subjects and inactivity were all reduced, while affiliative behaviour and individual and social play-related behaviour increased. Moreover, the benefits of this therapy were observed in trained individuals and the rest of the gorillas in the group, which would seem to indicate that training/playing can be used to create a more relaxed atmosphere, reducing social tension and improving the well-being of all the subjects involved.

This study examined the effects of social housing manipulations on bodyweight, corticosterone levels, and performance of T-maze alternation in male CD-1 mice. Males that adopted a dominant social rank were heavier than those that adopted a subordinate social rank. Dominant males also had lower corticosterone concentrations than the subordinates. However, there was little to suggest that these physiological indicators of social rank were moderated by housing condition. Indeed, statistical analysis confirmed that the difference in bodyweights was evident before males were socially housed. The mice showed high levels of spatial alternation on the T-maze from the start of testing so performance accuracy was high. Neither social rank nor housing condition had any clear categorical effect on T-maze performance. However, performance did fluctuate over successive blocks of testing and there was a negative association between accuracy on the T-maze and corticosterone levels (consistent with performance impairment because of elevated corticosterone). Therefore, under present conditions, individual differences in corticosterone were a better predictor of T-maze performance than social rank or housing condition. The results of the present study lend further support to the proposition that corticosterone levels measured non-invasively in urine may be used to predict diverse welfare outcomes for laboratory mice, from bodyweight to cognitive performance. Moreover, intrinsic physiological parameters rather than external influences, such as social housing, may have more influence on mouse behaviour.

During the commercial slaughter of farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a total of 67 fish were, on six occasions, removed from their rearing conditions at 14°C and put, as is standard commercial practice, into chilled seawater (-1.5 to -0.8°C) to monitor behavioural, muscular, osmoregulatory and respiratory responses during chilling time (90 min). Results show that a thermal insult alters the iso-osmotic balance, leading not only to an Na+ influx and an intracellular release of Ca2+ and K+, but also to a disturbance of respiratory function, leading to acidosis as a result of H+ and CO2 accumulation, increased pCO2 and reduced HCO3− in the blood. Once the internal temperature dropped below 1°C, the muscles contracted (cold shortening) and, although the fish were still alive, they reverted to a state of rigor, leading to a complete breakdown in their ability to move or ventilate and resembling an unconscious condition or death. Remarkably, the fish were able to prevent themselves undergoing hypoxia as pO2 remained within acceptable limits. No changes in muscle pH were observed and, thus, no noted effects on textural properties. We conclude that live chilling from 14°C to approximately -1°C is a highly questionable practice. It causes physical and physiological changes that are generally associated with stress and, in the case of observed forced muscle contractions, could lead to severe pain. Furthermore, we conclude that cold shortening associated with chilling can be easily mistaken for rigor mortis and, as such, should be subject to further attention in future research on quality.

Analysis of post mortem lesions is a common means for assessing poultry welfare during rearing and pre-slaughter handling. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of: age, sex, rearing system, total number of birds on-farm, period between catch and slaughter and distance from poultry house to processing plant on the incidence of: foot-pad dermatitis (FPD), breast blisters (BB), bruises and scratches. Rearing systems consisted of extensive indoor (EI) and traditional free-range (TFR). Accordingly, birds were reared under non-intensive conditions (< 12 broilers m−2). In TFR, the maximum flock size was 4,800, birds had continuous daytime access to open-air runs from at least the age of six weeks, and the minimum slaughter age was 81 days; whereas EI rearing was exclusively indoor and birds were slaughtered at 56 days or later. Observations occurred daily after plucking and each bird was examined for: haematomas, scratches, FPD and BB. Logistic regressions were applied to study the relationship between variables. Farms holding between 10,000-20,000 birds were the most affected with FPD, BB and scratches. The oldest birds (91-100 days) showed the greatest incidence of FPD and scratches. TFR birds exhibited the highest prevalence of bruises and lowest of FPD. BB were most common among birds travelling between 31-60 km from poultry farm to processing plant while scratches were more frequent at greater distances (91-120 km). Male broilers were more predisposed to BB than females. Scratching increased relative to the number of hours that birds awaited slaughter. Despite the fact that only a relatively small number of broiler flocks were examined, these findings may have implications for the draft of future European legislation regarding poultry welfare.

While it has the potential to deliver important human benefits, animal-based pain research raises ethical questions, because it involves inducing pain in sentient beings. Ethical decision-making, connected with this variety of research, requires informed harm-benefit analysis, and the aim of this paper is to provide information for such an analysis. We present an overview of the different models and their consequences for animal welfare, showing that, of the many animal models available, most have a considerable welfare impact on the animal. While the usual approach to pain control through administration of analgesic substances is usually unsuitable in pain research, refinement remains an option, both within the experimental protocol and in general husbandry and handling. Drawing on the overview, we develop a discussion of the ethical acceptability of animal-based pain research against the background of the kinds of harm done to the animals involved, the potential for refinement, and the expected benefits of the research.

Concern that excessive temperatures arising from substrate fermentation could have a deleterious effect on voluntary feed intake and weight gain, especially during the hottest times of the year, might be a barrier to the widespread adoption of deep-bedding systems for pig production in Brazil. The aim of this study was to compare the behaviour and performance of pigs reared on deep bedding with two different substrates, wood shavings and rice husks, or in barren, part-slatted, concrete-floored pens (n = 4 pens per treatment), from 60 days of age through to slaughter, during the summer months in Santa Catarina, southwest Brazil. Floor and pigs’ skin temperatures were 2.2 and 3.9% higher, respectively, in the pens with bedding than with concrete flooring; these differences resulted in modest, non-significant effects on performance and meat quality. Certain elements of the behaviour of pigs reared with bedding, such as increased play activity and substrate manipulation and less peer-directed behaviours, indicated improved welfare compared to pigs reared in concrete-floored pens. Performance and meat quality were similar in bedded pens with either wood shavings or rice husks. In both bedding substrates, the animals spent more time lying or standing on the beds than on the concrete platforms, where the feed and the water troughs were located, despite the higher temperature in the substrate compared to the concrete platform; suggesting that such temperature differences were not relevant for the thermal comfort of the animals. These results indicate that both substrates, abundant and readily available in the region, are suitable bedding materials for pigs.

Adrenocortical activity and time budgets in a robotic milking system in two variants of cow traffic (partially forced, free) were compared with a conventional milking system, focusing on the relationships between adrenocortical activity, time budgets, and social rank of the cows. Both groups were housed in identical conditions and consisted of 30 cows each. Within each experiment, direct observations of social behaviour and 24-hour video recordings were conducted during six two-day blocks. We calculated the dominance value and the time budget (‘lying’, ‘feeding’, ‘other activity’) of each cow. Faeces from each cow were collected to determine the concentration of cortisol metabolites (CCM) as an indicator of baseline adrenocortical activity and possible chronic stress. Analysis of CCM and time budgets did not indicate any adverse effects of the robotic milking system, with one exception: under partially-forced cow traffic, cows of low social rank had longer waiting times in front of the robot. Considering the fact that the number of cows milked by the robot was less than half of that recommended by the manufacturers, our results do not exclude the possibility that a higher stocking rate may lead to further adverse effects.

Stunning with carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is used in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo var domesticus) as an alternative to electrical water bath stunning. Investigations were carried out to assess the behavioural and clinical responses of turkeys stunned in a V-shaped CO2 tunnel while sitting in their transport crates as part of the usual slaughter routine in a commercial abattoir. The CO2 concentration in the tunnel rose from 27% at the first observation point (A) to 74% at point D and the transport time was 180 s. At window 1, 37.1% of the birds showed head shaking, 3.7% deep breaths and 2.9% intensive wing-flapping and at window 2 the respective figures were 2.2, 18.4 and 6.2%. All birds appeared to have lost consciousness at the point of leaving the tunnel. Prior to shackling, 15 s after leaving the tunnel, 230 animals were tested for both interphalangeal reflex and eyelid closure; 20.4% had an incomplete eyelid closure but none displayed an interphalangeal reflex. It would appear that the tunnel system we investigated stuns turkeys effectively within 180 s. However, the initial stunning phase of 40-105 s appears to cause the animals distress, which is demonstrated by head shaking, deep breaths and wing flapping.

This study has its basis in recent findings by our own and other laboratories and proposes a type of rewarded operant learning that seeks the detection of discriminatory cues as a cognitive enrichment in intensive husbandry systems. This type of cognitive enrichment has the ability to activate the intrinsically-rewarding mesolimbic brain axis when an animal acquires successful strategies to cope with environmental demands. It provides animals with the opportunity to develop positive affects through control of their environment and the anticipation of consummatory reward. If true animal welfare is considered more than simply the absence of stress and harm, provoking better affective conditions may be a suitable way of increasing the well-being of intensively-housed animals. Recent research with elaborated operant learning equipment, under experimental and quasi-commercial conditions, revealed better health, reduced boredom and less maladaptive behaviour as potentially practical advantages. A number of the issues regarding the transfer of this suggested form of cognitive enrichment to large scale, commercial farming are discussed.