The frequently anecdotal nature of evidence concerning the impact of warfare on conservation poses numerous problems and there have been calls to apply a strict set of conditions to such data to improve the rigor of scientific analysis in this field. To illustrate the difficulties, however, of applying strict quantitative conditions on such data a deterministic model of conflict-linked deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa was constructed and the implications of the model discussed. Our model indicates that from 1990–2005 approximately 35,000 ha of timber have been used to support officially recorded UN refugees in this region: this is a continuing impact, albeit quantified using data with some potential error. An alternative semi-quantitative approach was also used, with reported environmental impacts of conflict assessed for reliability and severity using a number of empirical criteria. Data focusing on the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda were subsequently analysed using this framework. Illegal resource exploitation was identified as the primary impact resulting from conflict and, in some instances, a driver of the hostilities. From the joint consideration of the conflict and post-conflict phases such exploitation is concluded to be the product of lawlessness and anarchy generated by violent uprisings rather than violence per se. As such, armed conflict does not pose a novel threat to protected areas but rather amplifies threats extant during peace, creating a need for appropriate responses by those involved in conservation management. With both the occurrence and violence of conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa increasing, the impacts of warfare are pertinent to both the immediate and long-term management of biological resources in the region.

The protected area network of Africa has grown from nothing to over 2 million km2 in the past 110 years. This network covers parts of all biomes and priority areas for biodiversity conservation but protected area gaps remain, as identified at the 5th World Parks Congress in 2003. Forest reserves, managed by Forest Departments, are typically excluded from global protected area lists, but in Africa they are found in 23 countries and cover at least 549,788 km2, adding 25% to the conservation estate. Forest reserves protect 5.3% (2,027 km2) of the dry forest habitats, 5% (165,285 km2) of lowland and montane moist forests, 2.6% (364,354 km2) of savannah woodlands, 1.8% (10,561 km2) of flooded grasslands, and 1.65% (1,177 km2) of mangroves. Forest reserves also protect parts of three conservation schemes: 6.5% (61,630 km2) of BirdLife's Endemic Bird Areas, 3.4% (147,718 km2) of Conservation International's Hotpots and 3.4% (346,864 km2) of WWF's Global 200 Ecoregions. Several of the global protected area gaps identified in Africa are also covered by forest reserves, in the Eastern Arc Mountains, Eastern African coastal forests, Kenyan Highlands, Cameroon-Nigerian Mountains, West African Forests and mountain areas of Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Zambia. Some African forest reserves have a legally defined role in biodiversity conservation and are strictly protected; they thus fit criteria for protected areas. Working with forest departments in individual countries may help develop a more comprehensive protected area network without creating additional new reserves.

Long-term ecological and economic sustainability will ultimately determine the outcome of any conservation management programme. Invasive alien plants, first recorded in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, in 1937, are now recognized as one of the greatest threats to the biodiversity of this Park. Such plants have been managed in the Park since 1956, with control advancing mainly through a process of trial and error. Refinement of invasive plant management strategies has resulted in an understanding of the target plants' biology and ecology, herbicide use and herbicide-plant interactions, as well as the plant-insect interactions of biological control. Careful integration of different control methods has proved essential to ensure the most appropriate use of techniques to deliver the best possible results from the resources available and achieve long-term sustainability. We outline the development of control efforts and current control programmes and the process of their incorporation into the institutional memory of Kruger National Park over the last 7 decades.

A major problem in establishing effective protocols for conserving Madagascar's biodiversity is the lack of reliable information for the identification of priority sites in need of protection. Analyses of field data and information from herbarium collections for members of the plant family Pandanaceae (85 spp. of Pandanus; 6 spp. of Martellidendron) showed how risk of extinction assessments can inform conservation planning. Application of IUCN Red List categories and criteria showed that 91% of the species are threatened. Mapping occurrence revealed centres of richness and rarity as well as gaps in Madagascar's existing protected area network. Protection of 10 additional sites would be required to encompass the 19 species currently lacking representation in the reserve network, within which east coast littoral forests are particularly under represented and important. The effect of scale on assessments of risk of extinction was explored by applying different grid cell sizes to estimate area of occupancy. Using a grid cell size within the range suggested by IUCN overestimates threatened status if based solely upon specimen data. For poorly inventoried countries such as Madagascar measures of range size based on such data should be complemented with field observations to determine population size, sensitivity to disturbance, and specific threats to habitat and therefore potential population decline. The analysis of such data can make an important contribution to the conservation planning process by identifying threatened species and revealing the highest priority sites for their conservation.

Primate crop raiding is a major cause of human-wildlife conflict around the forests of western Uganda. In an attempt to ameliorate the situation a conflict mitigation strategy was established in villages around the Budongo Forest Reserve in 2001. Live-traps were constructed that allowed the identification of crop raiding animals; pest species could be disposed of and threatened species released unharmed. However, by 2004 none of the traps in the study area were functioning and interviews were conducted to assess the reasons for their decline and local people's acceptance of the intervention. Forty-one percent of respondents did not believe the strategy was effective and the majority of local farmers did not accept responsibility for the traps. This was because of operational failures in four areas: (1) the identification of key stakeholders, (2) objective evaluation to assess the efficacy and benefit of the intervention, (3) participatory monitoring and evaluation, and (4) long-term funding commitment by conservation agencies. We examine the impact of these four elements upon the sustainability of the live-trap programme and stress the importance of recognizing and reporting failures to develop effective and acceptable mitigation strategies.

Where people and livestock live with predators there is often conflict that can lead to lethal control of predators. We evaluated attitudes of local people towards large predators and developed a novel index of tolerance by quantifying the number of livestock respondents would be willing to lose before killing the predator responsible. We interviewed 416 subsistence livestock farmers (community members) and commercial livestock ranchers in central Kenya. Commercial ranchers had more positive attitudes and higher tolerance than community members. Community members said their tolerance would increase if they were to derive income from ecotourism or trophy hunting. We found that community members with land title deeds were most tolerant of predators, stressing the importance of land security for conservation efforts. Subsistence livestock farming is the primary land use throughout much of Africa and, as a result, identifying strategies to improve tolerance of predators under this land tenure system is of major conservation significance.

The success of efforts to re-establish mammalian carnivores within their former range is dependent on three key factors: methodological considerations, the biological requirements of the target species, and the involvement of local human communities for whom large carnivores pose a threat. We consider the role of these factors in the first 13 years of an effort to re-establish wild lions in northern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. We employed soft-release methods to mitigate the characteristic problems associated with restoration of large carnivores. A pre-release captivity period facilitated acclimatization of reintroduced lions and promoted long-term bonding of unfamiliar individuals into cohesive groups. All individuals remained in the release area and established enduring, stable home ranges. Reintroduced lions successfully reproduced and raised 78% of their cubs to independence. Human activity was the cause of all post-release mortality. Despite rapid population growth and the re-establishment of the species at Phinda Private Game Reserve, the population is small and isolated with little prospect for re-colonizing additional areas where the species has been extirpated, or for connecting with other isolated lion populations in the region. Accordingly, although we essentially overcame the short-term technical and biological challenges facing lion reintroduction, the long-term value of the Phinda population for addressing the conservation issues facing the species remains equivocal.

Recently, conservation estate in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province has increased 10-fold resulting in large predators being increasingly reintroduced to restore ecological integrity and maximize tourism. We describe the reintroductions of large carnivores (>10 kg) that have occurred in the Eastern Cape and use various criteria to assess their success. Lion Panthera leo reintroduction has been highly successful with a population of 56 currently extant in the region and problems of overpopulation arising. The African wild dog Lycaon pictus population has increased to 24 from a founder population of 11. Preliminary results for spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta also indicate success. Wild populations of leopards Panthera pardus exist on several reserves and have been supplemented by translocated individuals, although deaths of known individuals have occurred and no estimate of reproduction is available. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus reintroduction has also been less successful with 36 individuals reintroduced and 23 cubs being born but only 41 individuals surviving in 2005. Criteria for assessing the success of reintroductions of species that naturally occur in low densities, such as top predators, generally have limited value. Carrying capacity for large predators is unknown and continued monitoring and intensive management will be necessary in enclosed, and possibly all, conservation areas in the Eastern Cape to ensure conservation success.

Effective species conservation depends upon correctly identifying the threats that cause decline or hinder recovery. Because estimates of the relative viability of different populations of Endangered African wild dogs Lycaon pictus are most strongly influenced by adult and pup mortality, we analysed rates and causes of mortality in eight wild dog populations under study in southern and eastern Africa. The probabilities of detecting wild dog deaths were influenced by the monitoring methods used. The least biased estimates of mortality causes were obtained through intensive monitoring of radio-collared individuals; this is impossible for pups, however. Mortality patterns varied substantially between populations. Rates of human-caused mortality were higher for wild dogs radio-collared outside protected areas than for those collared inside, but rates of natural mortality were comparable, suggesting that anthropogenic mortality is additive to natural mortality. The relative importance of factors such as snaring and infectious disease also varied regionally. Hence, although our analyses identified no new threats beyond those highlighted in a 1997 range-wide Action Plan, they suggest that local plans will be valuable to target conservation activities more precisely.

The status of marine turtles in Angola, West Africa, is poorly known, and therefore during 2000–2006 a combination of both dedicated and opportunistic beach and at-sea turtle surveys were carried out, and interviews conducted with fishing communities and at markets. Green Chelonia mydas, olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, leatherback Dermochelys coriacea and loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta were recorded, and nesting of the first three species confirmed during September–March (peaking November–December). Green turtles nested mainly in the south, leatherback turtles in north and central Angola, and olive ridley turtle nesting was widespread. Olive ridley turtle nest density at Palmeirinhas averaged 32 nests km−1. At-sea surveys produced 298 turtle records, with peak occurrence during August. Significant anthropogenic-related mortality (including exploitation of meat and eggs and fishing bycatch) was recorded, in addition to natural predation and other threats. Maintenance of the long-term sustainability of these turtle populations should focus on the involvement of fishing communities and increasing awareness throughout Angola.

The coast of north-west Madagascar is an important nesting and feeding ground for marine turtles, but little is known about populations in this area. From July to December 2000 we documented nesting activity of, and investigated threats to, green Chelonia mydas and hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata turtles at three sites along this coast: Nosy Iranja, the Radama Islands, and the Nosy Hara archipelago. Levels of nesting activity varied between sites, with green and hawksbill turtle nesting concentrated in different areas. The principal threats identified were opportunistic exploitation of nesting females and incidental capture in fishing nets. Commercial importance of marine turtles was negligible, suggesting conservation measures such as targeted environmental education could have beneficial impacts on these populations. Evidence for high levels of nesting activity reported here indicate that education efforts in these areas should be a conservation priority.

Sound knowledge of underlying mechanisms is essential for understanding how species respond to habitat fragmentation. Because most threatened species are typically the first ones to suffer local extinctions with forest fragmentation, studying why they fare poorly at the broader landscape scale is difficult. Related, sympatric but common species may be useful surrogates if they can provide insights germane for the conservation of rarer species. We illustrate this using a case study from the highly fragmented Taita Hills forests, south-eastern Kenya, of the Critically Endangered Taita thrush Turdus helleri and the more common white-starred robin Pogonocichla stellata as the surrogate. The responses of the thrush to habitat disturbance were in the same direction as the surrogate robin (e.g. higher fluctuating asymmetry, lower effective population densities and male-biased sex ratios), albeit they were detected sooner and were more severe because of its lower dispersal capacity. The key conservation measures proposed from the surrogate study largely matched those based on an independent evaluation of the thrush data. Additionally, the surrogate provided extra insights into the potential solutions for problems facing the thrush, and provided a base that could be used as a template for restoring the thrush populations in this area. Thus, our findings support the use of surrogate species in the conservation of sympatric related species in fragmented landscapes. We contend that this approach is also applicable for allopatric related species where landscapes are similar, provided that detailed data on population patterns and processes for the surrogate are available.

The Critically Endangered black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis occurs mainly in protected areas. Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, South Africa, contains a key source population for black rhino conservation, and declining population productivity has been attributed to negative habitat changes and a reduction in carrying capacity. As home range increase may be an index of declining habitat quality we determined the home ranges of the black rhino in the Park and compared these ranges with previous estimates. The average size of the home ranges during 1991–2001 was 23.07 ± SE 0.81 km2, which is 54% greater than in the 1980s. Sex and the availability of water did not influence home ranges. Home ranges decreased in winter. Female:male ratios varied across the Park, indicating that one or both sexes may prefer specific areas. Changes in vegetation structure and composition may have caused rhino to maintain larger ranges in order to meet their nutritional requirements. Ongoing review of stocking rates, population performance (including indicators such as range size), and intervention strategies are necessary to manage black rhino in dynamic savannah ecosystems.

The forests of the Cameroon-Nigeria transboundary region have been highlighted as a high conservation priority, yet many of the extant forest remnants remain relatively unknown, particularly with regard to the occurrence of large mammals. Between 2002 and 2004 we surveyed the large mammal fauna of the Mone and Ejagham Forest Reserves and the Upper Banyang, Nkwende Hills and Etinde forests of south-west Cameroon. Our objective was to document the extant large mammal species as an important step in the review of government priorities to identify key sites within the region for conservation and management. We reviewed the available literature on mammal distribution and then surveyed the forests for mammal and human signs. Despite a growing illegal commercial trade in wildlife, particularly for bushmeat, many sites retain populations of one or more threatened and locally rare large mammal species of significant conservation importance. Moreover, the sites collectively complement each other in terms of their representation of the threatened large mammal fauna. An emphasis on the enforcement of wildlife legislation and minimizing logging impact are of primary importance for the conservation of large mammals in these and other forest remnants in south-west Cameroon. In addition, at some sites, there already exists community interest in active wildlife management.

The endemic Madagascar flying fox Pteropus rufus is threatened by habitat loss at roost sites and hunting for bushmeat. There is no conservation plan for this species, even though it is categorized on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable and plays an important role as a seed disperser. In the Mangoro valley of central eastern Madagascar we monitored roost occupancy and abundance of P. rufus on 15 occasions at six sites over a 12-month period and conducted a detailed assessment of eight roosts during July 2004. There was considerable monthly variation in bat abundance and only two sites contained bats during every visit. Three sites were occupied only between September and March and may act as maternity or nursery roosts. Evidence of hunting was found at three roosts, and fire and forest clearance are ubiquitous threats. Two roosts were in Eucalyptus plantations and six were in small (2.2 - 28.7 ha) isolated fragments of degraded, mid elevation dense humid forest. All roosts were outside protected areas but were within 20 km of relatively intact forest. Faecal analysis revealed a diet of native forest tree species, cultivated fruits and Eucalyptus flowers. P. rufus in the Mangoro valley, and elsewhere in Madagascar, appears to survive in human-impacted environments by the inclusion of exotic plants in its diet and the ability to move between roosts. We provide conservation recommendations for P. rufus at both local and national levels.