Bilinguals change their way of communicating when they are with monolinguals and when they are with bilinguals who share their languages. Whereas they avoid using their other language(s) with monolinguals (they are in a monolingual mode), they may call upon it (or them) when interacting with bilinguals, either by changing over completely to the other language(s) or by bringing elements of the other language(s) into the language they are speaking (they are then in a bilingual mode). The author reviews how he developed the notion of language mode, which, at the cognitive level, implies a change of activation of the languages and processing mechanisms. He summarizes some of the basic elements of language mode as described in a 2001 seminal chapter, discusses how language mode has fared since, and presents additional evidence for it. He then proposes some follow-up comments that deal with the level of activation of the deactivated language(s) in a monolingual mode, the complex nature of the variable that is language mode, and how it compares to the adaptive control hypothesis. He ends with reactions to language mode – many positive and some critical.

Chapter 2 analyses the negotiation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC, 1998–2003). It illustrates that evidence was a key element of the negotiations and argues that the FCTC was developed as an evidence-based treaty to counteract the attacks on evidence by the tobacco industry. After a historical introduction, Section 2.2 outlines the theoretical background of the chapter, introducing the notion of ‘treaty entrepreneurs’. Sections 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5 proceed to delineate and analyse how the strategy on evidence unfolded during the FCTC negotiations. Section 2.3 illustrates how legal expertise from international environmental law was borrowed to build a treaty that could embed and develop evidence. Section 2.4 describes how evidence was mobilised to build the treaty. First, the treaty entrepreneurs relied on existing knowledge within the WHO; second, they served as a catalyst for the production of additional evidence from other relevant actors, most notably the World Bank. Section 2.5 reviews how the treaty entrepreneurs framed the available evidence and how the label ‘evidence-based’ started being used. Section 2.6, finally, draws some conclusions on the implications of adopting a strategy on evidence to push forward the negotiations of a treaty.

The Magic Flute stands out for its eclectic blend of musical styles. While only one scene – the duet of the Armored Men in Act 2 – includes a confirmed musical quotation, some scholars have posited that the opera contains a multitude of musical borrowings and allusions. Flute’s referential character owes much to Mozart’s ingenious use of musical topics. However, allusions to specific works have also been proposed throughout the opera’s history. In 1950, A. Hyatt King assembled an inventory of Flute’s “sources and affinities,” suggesting many plausible but largely unsubstantiated melodic precedents in works by Mozart and others. Scholars have particularly disagreed about the “source” from which Mozart allegedly derived Papageno’s aria “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen.” As in the case of the duet of the Armored Men (which quotes a Lutheran chorale), the desire to link Mozart and J. S. Bach has led to divergent claims about the melody’s provenance.

Informal borrowings are defined as expressions taken from a foreign language and used in informal American English. They conform to the traditional typology of borrowings and include such main types as loanwords and loan translations, but there are other finer distinctions, much as there are certain terms often confused with borrowings, such as code switches or nonce borrowings. Informal language, in turn, refers to a type of vocabulary which is stylistically “lower” than the standard language and “below” the formal and neutral registers on the formality scale. It includes two subsets: colloquialism, which is composed of moderately informal and casual expressions, and slang, which is composed of highly informal and unconventional expressions, strongly linked with a sociocultural context. Again, there are numerous similar terms to account for this type of lexicon, but their semantic scopes are different.

The aim of this book is to provide a linguistic description of borrowings in informal American English and to serve as a practical resource documenting this type of language. These foreign-origin expressions, comprising both slang and colloquialism, constitute a vibrant sociolinguistic phenomenon resulting from language contact, and function as an important yet rarely discussed lexical contribution to American English. Their significance stems from the sociolinguistic significance of informal language in the United States, the strong presence of borrowings in American speech reflecting the immigrant nature of the country and the growing role of ethnic minorities, as well as the increasingly common use of this type of lexicon among larger segments of American society.

This chapter reviews the existing Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) work on diachronic syntax and morphosyntax and shows how the tools of language description developed by RRG can also be used to account for several aspects of language change. Drawing evidence from developments which have occurred in a wide range of languages, it is argued that RRG allows for a more fine-grained analysis of diachronic processes than theoretically neutral approaches, that it answers fundamental questions about the nature and causes of syntactic change, and that it is not a mere tool of linguistic description, but a theory that makes falsifiable empirical predictions.

Chapter 7 discusses China’s infrastructure development.It analyzes the ways in which infrastructure investment has been financed, including revenues from land sales, bank loans, infrastructure development funds, domestic and foreign debt, taxes, fees, and user charges. It shows the composition of funds for financing key infrastructures including transportation, telecommunication, energy, and sanitation. It demonstrates that China's infrastructures have grown rapidly in the past twenty-five years. It examines the reasons for the fast infrastructure development in China and the problems with infrastructure development, including a solid tax system, a pro-infrastructure spending system, expansionary fiscal policies, and large local government revenues from land sales and bank borrowings. It also evaluates China’s belt and road initiative and discusses the L17benefits and potential risks to the countries involved.

In his Hamburg passions and cantatas, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach borrowed music by a variety of contemporary composers, including Telemann, his godfather and immediate predecessor as music director in Hamburg. Most of these borrowings have been identified, but the chorales represent a special case, for even those of known origin may pose questions about how Bach adapted and performed them. This chapter focuses on Bach’s chorales with connections to Telemann, showing that some previously considered to be adaptations from the latter’s Fast allgemeines Musicalisches Lieder-Buch (1730) may in fact have different models. Other chorales, drawn from Telemann’s published cantata cycle Musicalisches Lob Gottes (1744), necessitated the adaptation of the original three-voice settings for four voices. Surviving sources indicate that Bach either composed a new voice or added a tenor line that doubles the soprano line an octave lower. In cases where Bach’s scores call for the insertion of a Telemann chorale but no performance parts survive to reveal the adaptation process, I turn to the models of Bach himself and of Telemann’s grandson, Georg Michael, whose own adaptations of chorales suggest possible solutions.

As is well known, Telemann was godfather to Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who eventually succeeded Telemann in his position at Hamburg. Telemann may have been equally significant for Emanuel’s father Johann Sebastian, serving as a professional role model and providing models for composition. In particular, Telemann’s “Eisenach” cantata Jahrgang of 1710–11 could have been a crucial spur toward Bach’s first essays in the new type of church cantata which he began composing at Weimar circa 1714. Telemann’s later nomination as allgemeiner Capellmeister for the Ernestine Saxon duchies formalized his position as the dominant musical figure in the region while Bach was at Weimar. Musical sources as well as stylistic parallels suggest that, during this formative period, Bach composed vocal as well as instrumental works in emulation of examples by Telemann.

English exerts a major influence on other languages, and borrowing is a significant product of language contact. This includes the borrowing of discourse–pragmatic items such as politeness formulas, greetings, expletives, and so on (Andersen 2014; Andersen 2017; Peterson 2017; Terkourafi 2009). This chapter considers two English–based forms that are used as discourse–pragmatic items in Norwegian alongside domestic alternatives with the same function. This includes please, used in requests alongside the domestic variant vær så snill, and sorry used in apologies alongside unnskyld and beklager. Individual corpus tokens are assessed for their illocutionary force, with a view to exploring the pragmatic conditioning of speakers’ choices of borrowed versus domestic forms. It is shown that the English forms are not replacing their domestic equivalents, but the data show signs of a division of labor and there are contexts where only one variant form is allowed. The study is based on four different corpora of spoken Norwegian: Ungdomsspråk i Norden (UNO), Norsk talemålskorpus (NoTa), the Big Brother corpus and the Scandinavian Dialect Corpus.

Language contact is at the base of potential changes in language, whose extent may vary considerably depending on the degree of multilingual interaction. Therefore, the study of language contact is key to the understanding of the evolutionary dynamics of language. The Romance linguistic landscape cuts across multiple possible contact-setting types, and the empirical evidence for contact-induced change involving Romance is abundant. The Romance languages thus qualify as an ideal testbed for language contact studies. This chapter highlights the difference between innovative and conservative effects of language contact and discusses borrowing as the fundamental process and result of contact-induced language change, distinguishing between RL and SL agentivity, and between matter borrowing and pattern borrowing. Several case studies of borrowing are presented in relation to different components of grammar, namely phonology, prosody, morphology, and syntax. The upper limits of borrowing are discussed (in terms of areal formation and mixed language genesis) and a number of predictors of grammatical borrowing are reviewed. Issues concerning the so-called borrowability hierarchies are critically addressed.

The chapter discusses contact-induced phenomena, the models used in linguistics to represent processes of diffusion, and the principles that govern them. It explains several cases of diffusion across language barriers, borrowing and substrate effects, dialect contact, and new-dialect formation.

This chapter discusses – in the general problematics of languages in contact – Jewish languages and languages of the Diaspora. It intends to study from a comparative perspective especially the diachrony of Yiddish and Judeo-Spanish, two diasporic languages with similar developments and destinies. After a short presentation of the two languages, we examine successively: 1) the creation of Judaeo-languages in Diaspora, 2) the Diaspora versus migration, 3) the Judaeo-calque languages, 4) the common dynamics of Jewish languages, and 5) the diachrony of Jewish languages. The conclusion focuses on the successful innovations appearing in a Jewish language. It points out the important role of the Hebrew component (its direct and indirect influence), as well as the broad interlinguistic competence of Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish speakers in the process of evolution of the languages considered.

Medieval and classical periods in African history are a particular focus of this survey of language contact patterns seen on the African continent. The effects of languages associated with empires and kingdoms are shown to vary widely, with many such languages remaining influential even in the present day. Disentangling earlier patterns of language contact is a necessary step for those interested in reconstructing and classifying African languages. The great time depth and diversity found within each of the major African language phyla is mirrored by a dizzying array of contact patterns both within and across these phyla.