Collectivism symbolizes Japanese culture for many people in the world including Japanese themselves. The “collectivistic Japanese” are alleged to have the following characteristics: They feel at ease only in a group; they merge into their group and thus lack individuality and autonomy; they are indistinguishable from one another; they conform to their group and cooperate with the group members even at the sacrifice of their own individual interests; their obedience to their group leads to the hierarchical authoritarian society. However, these characterizations are mostly based on casual observations and personal experiences instead of systematic acadmic investigation. In psychology, nevertheless, two influential studies generalized the contrast between Western culture and Japanese culture in collectivism and individualism to the contrast between Western culture and all the other cultures.

People who may identify as LGBTQ+ and other sexual, affectional, intersex, and gender-expansive (SAIGE) identities around the world face political oppression and social discrimination, including arrest, violence, and murder. In countries that have made strides toward affirming and including SAIGE rights, discrimination and social exclusion still exist. This chapter discusses colonialism, postcolonial theory, and increased awareness of counseling theory related to SAIGE individuals globally.

This chapter seeks to illustrate from the bottom up the role that social justice played in establishing and maintaining authoritarian rule in Czechoslovakia under National Socialism and state socialism. The author investigates how notions of social justice were included in the social practice of both regimes and how the working population responded to these policies. By analysing legal disputes, this chapter explores the critical space between rulers and ruled to assess when and how notions of social justice were articulated in Czechoslovakia. In their opposition to the ‘injustices’ of past governments, such as those wrought by social inequality and economic suffering, both National Socialists and Communists drew on a language of social justice to articulate their own visions of a new order. However, their respective notions of social justice differed radically: from social justice defined in racial terms, typical for New Order movements, to social justice delimited by social class and attained for all members of the ‘socialist working society’. The main difference that emerged from the transition from the Nazi to the post-war Communist regime was a shift from the language of individual rights to a language related to the collective, to society, and to the state.

Cultural groups address the initiation, development, and maintenance of romantic relationships and marriage in diverse ways. Western values, beliefs, and populations have dominated theory and research, which has led to a relatively monocultural science of relationships. This chapter explores the developing literature on East Asian ways of thinking, feeling, and relating to suggest avenues for further investigation of culturally-defined relationships. We first focus on relatively broad social, ideological, and institutional factors that shape the East Asian Confucian cultural model of marriage in comparison to Western models of relationships. Then we review research linking distinctive East Asian ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving to culturally valued practices, attitudes, and behaviors in romantic relationships and marriage.

Communist morality was created by revolutionary leaders and thinkers in the early twentieth century to serve the greater goal of building communism in the entire world and was regarded by both the communists and the Western left-wing as antithetical to the corrupt morality of capitalist societies. It is by nature a statist ethical system that always prioritizes the interests of the state and relies on state ownership of the means of production to enforce its moral principles. This essay starts with the moral interiority of socialist subjects, focussing on the transformative impact of communist morality on individuals and their motivations to accept or prescribe the newly imposed ethics by the state. Then it closely examines the official discourses of communist morality in the former Soviet Union and China and their moral practices through the social engineering project of creating the socialist ‘New Person’. The concluding section argues that the emphasis on collective identity and the centrality of institutional sociality determine the relevance of communist morality in the world today.

Staff genuinely seeking to improve their cultural competency can make a lasting positive impact on intergenerational migrant and refugee families seeking or coming into contact with their services. Collectivism, intensified patriarchy, white privilege, and neoliberalism are all critical lenses for understanding how to work well with them as they parent in a new land. These issues are discussed by drawing on the authors’ lived experiences and recent research. Australia and New Zealand (Aotearoa) are multicultural societies. In Australia approximately 21% of people speak a non-English language at home and in New Zealand 25.9% have an ethnicity that is not European or Māori (Stats NZ, 2019). Naming this group is challenging. In Australia, for example, ‘culturally and linguistically diverse’ (CALD) superseded ‘non-English speaking background (NESB) as the official term used in social policy in 1996 because it was seen as better for drawing attention to culture and not just language, and for not homogenising the people and generations it intends to encompass.

Chapter 3 examines business cultures in East Asia, explores their origins, and identifies characteristics that may assist in designing and implementing competition law and policy. It is argued that authoritarianism, paternalism, and collectivism engender dependence on and subservience to corporate authority. Further, business groups (SOEs in China, zaibatsu and keiretsu in Japan, and chaebol in Korea) have played an important role in industrialization. The chapter underlines the links between culture at the level of society and at the level of business communities and enterprises, the norms and practices of such enterprises, and their competitive effects. Given these links, it would be constructive to take account of elements of culture in developing and implementing a well-designed competition law and policy. The chapter discusses six dimensions that should be taken into account in competition law: competition goals, the enforcement of competition law against government-linked companies, the management of family firms, the enforcement of competition law where business groups are prevalent, the design of compliance programmes and the promotion of ‘competition culture’ in East Asia.

Chapter 17 aims to give an integrated account of how subjectivity and intersubjectivity are coded in Korean sentence endings, how such suffixes are diachronically derived from their source constructions, and what typological and socio-cultural factors motivate the emergence and proliferation of such suffixes. The chapter surveys how suffixes index the speaker or both the speaker and addressee as an integral component in their semantic structure. It then examines how such (inter)subjective inflectional suffixes have diachronically been grammaticalized from non-subjective source constructions. The chapter shows that in Korean and in other languages, subjectification tends to lead to intersubjectification and not vice versa. Finally, the chapter argues that the relatively extensive diversity of inflectional suffixes in Korean, especially intersubjective suffixes, is due to two facts: 1) typologically head-final syntax and a typical agglutinative morphology and 2) the time-honored cultural values of hierarchism and collectivism as well as recent dynamic socio-economic mobilities in Korean society and culture.

In the present chapter, we examine ethnicity as a potential moderator of interdependence processes within Rusbult’s investment model.Using Triandis’s theory of subjective culture (which contends that ethnic groups differ in the cultural values that they embrace) as a point of departure, we review empirical evidence concerning the hypotheses that Thibaut and Kelley’s original version of interdependence theory in general is limited to individualistic (rather than collectivistic) ethnic groups.We conclude that the evidence does not support Triandis’s hypotheses.Nevertheless, we argue that a revamped version of Triandis’s theory that incorporates elements of Kelley and Thibaut’s revised interdependent theory and Rusbult’s investment model can serve as the basis for developing new, testable hypotheses concerning ethnicity as a moderator of interdependence processes.Implications for the relevance of subjective culture to relationship science are discussed.

With world population senescence and globalization, more present-day older adults will evince cognitive aging that is influenced over a longer life span by a wide range of social practices and motivational beliefs from cultural groups across the world. Although there is no dispute that brain structure and function aggregate biological and experiential influences, a useful framework is still needed regarding the specific neural mechanisms underlying the exchange between biology and experience with age, and the effect on cognition. We introduce a predictive coding framework of the aging cognitive brain that views the older brain as making predictions about the environment based on a lifetime of experience in it. The influence of cultural experiences in shaping the aging predictive brain then reflects individual differences in processing social signals about appropriate or inappropriate behaviors and cognitive styles amid neural resources changes. We briefly annotate relevant findings on age effects and cultural differences in neurocognitive processing. We further review findings showing that cultural cognitive differences are present in children, persist in young adulthood, and are either maintained or accentuated in older adulthood. Finally, we consider that the predictive aging brain is an enculturated one, reflecting the accumulation of a lifetime of experiences that have fortified culture-specific modes of thought and neural processing in older adults.

The parasite-stress theory of values or sociality is a recent, encompassing perspective in human social psychology and behavior. As an ecological and evolutionary theory of peoples’ cultural values/core preferences, it applies widely across many domains of human social life and human affairs. It is a general theory of human culture and sociality. Fundamental to the theory is the behavioral immune system. The human behavioral immune system includes: psychological traits and manifest behaviors for avoiding contact with infectious diseases; behaviors of in-group social preference, altruism, alliance, and conformity that manage the negative effects of infectious diseases; mate choice to increase personal and offspring defense against parasites; culinary behavior; and components of personality. The contagion-avoidance aspect of behavioral immunity is much more than out-group avoidance and dislike (xenophobia). It also includes the preference for the natal or local region (philopatry) and hence avoidance of foreignness in people and places where novel parasites may occur. The parasite-stress theory has produced a cornucopia of newly discovered patterns and informed and reinterpreted previously described patterns in the behavior of individuals and at the level of cultures/societies and regions. In novel ways, it informs and synthesizes knowledge of major features of the social lives and societal-level affairs of people, ranging from prejudice and egalitarianism to personality, economic patterns, core values, interpersonal and intergroup violence, governmental systems, gender relations, family structure, and the genesis and maintenance of cultural diversity across the world.

This chapter offers a broad overview of the development of Catholic social thought on socialism and capitalism, together with novel interpretations of this tradition. Through a close engagement with magisterial documents, this chapter first provides an account of socialism as the founding heresy of the formal tradition of the social doctrine of the Church, aiming to distill the essence of the Church’s condemnation. It goes on to argue that capitalism is not a similar (but opposite) heresy since capitalism is not in essence an error about human nature and man's relation to created goods. The principles of right order are discussed in relation to capitalism, with the question of just wages receiving a prominent treatment. Finally, drawing on the "twin rocks" passage in Quadragesimo anno, the chapter provides a schema for thinking about the axis of philosophical mistakes related to socialism and capitalism. A brief treatment of private property in the final section is used to illustrate the common but faulty assimilation of individualism and collectivism to capitalism and socialism respectively. For the sake of tractability, this chapter focuses primarily on the development of the social magisterium in the Leonine era.