To what degree and why are traditional institutions persistent? Following up the literature on the long-term effects of precolonial institutions in Africa, we investigate whether and where today's traditional institutions mirror their precolonial predecessors. We do so by linking data on contemporary traditional institutions of African ethnic groups with Murdock's historical Ethnographic Atlas. We find a robust association between past and present levels of institutional complexity, differentiating between institutions’ political centralization and functional differentiation. However, this persistence originates almost exclusively from former British colonies governed with more reliance on precolonial institutions than other colonies, in particular French ones. These findings contribute to research on the development and effects of traditional institutions, highlighting the need to account for varying persistence of traditional institutions.

Folate and vitamin B12 are essential for growth. Our objective was to estimate their long-term effects on linear growth in North Indian children. This is a follow-up study of a factorial designed, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial in 1000 young children. Starting at 6–30 months of age, we gave folic acid (approximately 2 RDA), vitamin B12 (approximately 2 RDA), both vitamins or a placebo daily for 6 months. Six years after the end of supplementation, we measured height in 791 children. We used the plasma concentrations of cobalamin, folate and total homocysteine to estimate vitamin status. The effect of the interventions, the association between height-for-age z-scores (HAZ) and baseline vitamin status, and the interactions between supplementation and baseline status were estimated in multiple regression models. Mean (sd) age at follow-up was 7·4 (0·7) years (range 6 to 9 years). There was a small, non-significant effect of vitamin B12 on linear growth and no effect of folic acid. We observed a subgroup effect of vitamin B12 supplementation in those with plasma cobalamin concentration < 200 pmol/l (P for interaction = 0·01). The effect of vitamin B12 supplementation in this group was 0·34 HAZ (95 % CI 0·11, 0·58). We found an association between cobalamin status and HAZ in children not given vitamin B12 (P for interaction = 0·001). In this group, each doubling of the cobalamin concentration was associated with 0·26 (95 % CI 0·15, 0·38) higher HAZ. Suboptimal vitamin B12 status in early childhood seemingly limits linear growth in North Indian children.

This article examines how violence against citizens affects their political attitudes and behavior in the long run, and how those effects vary over time. We construct and analyze a novel dataset on the victims of Taiwan's February 28 Incident, in 1947, with survey data spanning 1990 to 2017. Our empirical analysis shows that cohorts having directly or indirectly experienced the Incident are less likely to support the Kuomintang Party (KMT), the former authoritarian ruling party responsible for the Incident. They tend to disagree with the key conventional policy stand of the KMT (unification with mainland China), are more likely to self-identify as Taiwanese, and are less likely to vote for KMT presidential candidates. Taiwan's residents who were born in towns with larger number of casualties during the Incident are more likely to reject unification. Finally, the effects are found to vary over the period following democratization.

We investigated whether different rearing conditions affected the physical development, ease of integration into the dairy herd and performance of primiparous dairy cows and the results are reported in this Research Communication. The three rearing conditions investigated were whole-day cow-calf contact for 9 weeks (WDC), half-day contact for nine weeks (HDC) and no mother-contact (NC) with nipple-bucket-feeding (max. 2 × 3 l/d) and group-housing from the 8th day onward. After permanent separation from the dams (WDC and HDC), all calves had been nipple-bucket-fed and gradually weaned from week 10 to 13 of life and kept together as calves and heifers. Measures of physical development were trunk girth, height at withers and body weight. Lying behavior during the first 48 h after introduction to the dairy herd after first calving was used as an indicator of ease of integration. Performance measures were age at calving, lactation duration, milk yield and culling rates during the first lactation. No differences between WDC and HDC could be detected. Moreover, no treatment-effects on physical development or performance could be found. All treatments showed reduced lying for the first 24 h after introduction to the dairy herd. Afterward NC-heifers lay less than WDC, with HDC-heifers ranging in between. We conclude that under the conditions investigated higher weights two weeks after weaning in WDC- and HDC-calves did not carry through to the first lactation and did not lead to earlier maturity and higher performance, but that integration into the herd may be alleviated when calves have early experience of the herd and associated conditions.

Objectives: Concussions affect the processing of emotional stimuli. This study aimed to investigate how sex interacts with concussion effects on early event-related brain potentials (ERP) measures (P1, N1) of emotional facial expressions (EFE) processing in asymptomatic, multi-concussion athletes during an EFE identification task. Methods: Forty control athletes (20 females and 20 males) and 43 multi-concussed athletes (22 females and 21 males), recruited more than 3 months after their last concussion, were tested. Participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory II, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Post-Concussion Symptom Scale, and an Emotional Facial Expression Identification Task. Pictures of male and female faces expressing neutral, angry, and happy emotions were randomly presented and the emotion depicted had to be identified as fast as possible during EEG acquisition. Results: Relative to controls, concussed athletes of both sex exhibited a significant suppression of P1 amplitude recorded from the dominant right hemisphere while performing the emotional face expression identification task. The present study also highlighted a sex-specific suppression of the N1 component amplitude after concussion which affected male athletes. Conclusions: These findings suggest that repeated concussions alter the typical pattern of right-hemisphere response dominance to EFE in early stages of EFE processing and that the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the processing of emotional stimuli are distinctively affected across sex. (JINS, 2018, 24, 1–11)

Comparative models suggest that effects of dietary tryptophan (Trp) on brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) neurochemistry and stress responsiveness are present throughout the vertebrate lineage. Moreover, hypothalamic 5-HT seems to play a central role in control of the neuroendocrine stress axis in all vertebrates. Still, recent fish studies suggest long-term effects of dietary Trp on stress responsiveness, which are independent of hypothalamic 5-HT. Here, we investigated if dietary Trp treatment may result in long-lasting effects on stress responsiveness, including changes in plasma cortisol levels and 5-HT neurochemistry in the telencephalon and hypothalamus of Atlantic salmon. Fish were fed diets containing one, two or three times the Trp content in normal feed for 1 week. Subsequently, fish were reintroduced to control feed and were exposed to acute crowding stress for 1 h, 8 and 21 d post Trp treatment. Generally, acute crowding resulted in lower plasma cortisol levels in fish treated with 3×Trp compared with 1×Trp- and 2×Trp-treated fish. The same general pattern was reflected in telencephalic 5-HTergic turnover, for which 3×Trp-treated fish showed decreased values compared with 2×Trp-treated fish. These long-term effects on post-stress plasma cortisol levels and concomitant 5-HT turnover in the telencephalon lends further support to the fact that the extrahypothalamic control of the neuroendocrine stress response is conserved within the vertebrate lineage. Moreover, they indicate that trophic/structural effects in the brain underlie the effects of dietary Trp treatment on stress reactivity.

Population ageing is a global trend that affects individual life plans, family arrangements, market structures, care provisions and pension schemes. We combine insights from demography and lifecourse research to understand better the causes of population ageing. Demography explains population ageing by describing changes in fertility, mortality and migration rates. Lifecourse research argues that these rates are interconnected because they are embedded in the lifecourses of individuals. An individual's experiences at an early age can influence behaviours at a later age, thereby creating continuity throughout the lifecourse. Additionally, lifecourse research underlines that social networks – such as families – and countries influence lifecourse. Thus, historical events and past experiences have already set the course for today's demographic changes. Moreover, the effects of policies that strive to influence population ageing will not be evident for years or even decades to come. This paper introduces a conceptual framework that explains how the lifecourse perspective can be applied to the phenomenon of population ageing and illustrates the framework through a case study of Germany. The case study highlights that insights from the micro-, meso- and macro-levels need to be combined to achieve a deeper understanding of population ageing. Scholars can use the framework presented in this paper as a guideline for merging arguments from demography and lifecourse research in future studies.

In the long term after traumatic brain injury, the most disabling problems are generally related to neuropsychiatric sequelae, including personality change and cognitive impairment, rather than neurophysical sequelae. Cognitive impairment after severe injury is likely to include impaired speed of information processing, poor memory and executive problems. Personality change may include poor motivation, and a tendency to be self-centred and less aware of the needs of others. Patients may be described as lazy and thoughtless. Some become disinhibited and rude. Agitation and aggression can be very difficult to manage. Anxiety and depression symptoms are quite frequent and play a role in the development of persistent post-concussion syndrome after milder injury. Depression may be associated with a deterioration in disability over time after injury. Psychosis is not unusual though it has been difficult to confirm that traumatic brain injury is a cause of schizophrenia. Head injury may, many years later, increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Good rehabilitation probably minimizes the risk of psychiatric sequelae, but specific psychological and pharmacological treatments may be needed.

Neurobehavioural sequelae of traumatic brain injuries require an appropriate/effective pharmacological response in that they represent an important cause of disability. In this field, there is no evidence that reaches the level of a standard: there are guidelines on the use of methylphenidate, donepezil and bromocriptine for the treatment of cognitive disturbances, for the non-use of phenytoin and for the use of β-blockers for controlling aggressiveness. Resolving a single symptom is not relevant in a rehabilitation project if it is not in the context of a more complex picture of neurobehavioural recovery, in which the positive and negative effects of every therapeutic choice are considered. For example, phenytoin could be used for the positive control of epileptic crises but is not advised since it impedes the recovery of cognitive functions in general. Analogous effects not yet identified may concern benzodiazepine, neuroleptics and other sedatives usually prescribed in cases of cranial trauma. Psychotropic drugs are considered to be able to influence the neuronal plasticity processes. Studies on animals have shown that the administration of D-amphetamine combined with sensorial-motor exercise produces the steady acceleration of motor recovery, which acts as a catalyst to the neurological recovery process. On the other hand, α1-NA receptor antagonist drugs produce negative effects; these include clonidine (antihypertension) and haloperidol (neuroleptic). Studies need to be carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of particular drugs. These studies need to focus not only on the disappearance of symptoms but also on the positive and negative effects on overall rehabilitation and on the neurobiological recovery of the patient.

Twenty participants with self-reported long-term benzodiazepine use (mean 108 months) who had previously withdrawn from medication (mean 42 months) were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests. Each long-term user was case matched for age, sex, and education to two control participants who reported never taking benzodiazepines (those with and those without anxiety). The results indicated that long-term benzodiazepine use may lead to impairments in the areas of verbal memory, motor control/performance, and nonverbal memory but not visuospatial skills and attention/concentration. The length of abstinence (> 6 months) indicates that these impairments persist well beyond cessation of benzodiazepine use. However, observed impairments in the area of nonverbal memory were not solely attributable to benzodiazepine use and may be influenced by the elevated anxiety levels present in both the case and the anxious control group. (JINS, 2005, 11, 281–289.)

Temperature as one of the most important single physical factors determining or influencing embryo development and hatchability is reviewed and possible temperature manipulations are discussed as a management tool.

Pre-incubation egg holding temperature is reviewed as a factor acting on variability in developmental stage at oviposition. A mathematical approach for determining the temperature threshold or physiological zero for embryonic development is outlined. Temperature requirements during incubation are discussed, taking into account the ultimate aims and objectives of the incubation process, i.e. hatchability and chick quality for survival, growth and reproduction, challenging at the same time the idea that the best hatchability is synonymous with the highest chick quality.

Factors affecting limits of variation in incubation temperature, with particular reference to strain or line differences, are discussed.