A steady supply of hosts at the susceptible stage for parasitism is a major component of mass rearing parasitoids for biological control programs. Here we describe the effects of storing 5th instar Plodia interpunctella larvae in dormancy on subsequent host development in the context of host colony maintenance and effects of the duration of host dormancy on the development of Habrobracon hebetor parasitoids reared from dormant hosts. We induced dormancy with a combination of short daylength (12L:12D) and lower temperature (15°C), conditions known to induce diapause in this species, and held 5th instar larvae of P. interpunctella for a series of dormancy durations ranging from 15 to 105 days. Extended storage of dormant 5th instar larvae had no significant impacts on survival, development, or reproductive potential of P. interpunctella, reinforcing that dormant hosts have a substantial shelf life. This ability to store hosts in dormancy for more than 3 months at a time without strong negative consequences reinforces the promise of using dormancy to maintain host colonies. The proportion of hosts parasitized by H. hebetor did not vary significantly between non-dormant host larvae and dormant host larvae stored for periods as long as 105 days. Concordant with a prior study, H. hebetor adult progeny production from dormant host larvae was higher than the number of progeny produced on non-dormant host larvae. There were no differences in size, sex ratio, or reproductive output of parasitoids reared on dormant hosts compared to non-dormant hosts stored for up to 105 days. Larval development times of H. hebetor were however longer when reared on dormant hosts compared to non-dormant hosts. Our results agree with other studies showing using dormant hosts can improve parasitoid mass rearing, and we show benefits for parasitoid rearing even after 3 months of host dormancy.

The aim of this study was to investigate the foraging behavior of Aphidius matricariae (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a biological control agent of Myzus persicae nicotianae Blackman (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a key and cosmopolitan pest of tobacco fields. To achieve a strategy for the control of this pest and a mass-rearing program of the parasitoid, host stage preference, switching, functional response, and mutual interference of A. matricariae were investigated at 25 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% RH and 16:8 h L:D photoperiod. The parasitoid showed a preference for third- and fourth-instar nymphs of tobacco aphid in both choice and no-choice experiments. Using the Murdach's model, switching behavior was observed in A. matricariae between different density proportions of third- and fourth-instar nymphs. Further, the parasitoid exhibited a type II functional response when it was offered to third-instar nymphs of M. persicae nicotianae at six densities (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64). Based on the linear regression analysis, there was a significance difference between the logarithm of per capita searching efficiency and the logarithm of parasitoid density. As the wasp density increased, per capita searching efficiency decreased. The result of this study revealed that A. matricariae is an effective agent in the integrated management of M. persicae nicotianae. In addition, application of these results can be important in mass-rearing program of A. matricariae.

The mirid bug Apolygus lucorum (Meyer-Dür) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is a major pest on cotton, fruit trees and other crops in China. A. lucorum adults often switch host plants in the agro-ecosystem, and such host-plant switching may promote more rapid population growth of A. lucorum. Here, we examined the population fitness of A. lucorum on different combinations of two plant foods [fresh maize kernels (Zea mays) and green bean pods (Phaseolus vulgaris)] in the laboratory when reared either individually or in groups. Our results suggested that, compared with A. lucorum nymphs reared on green bean alone, the survival rate, developmental rate, and adult weight significantly increased when they were fed fresh maize kernels for both rearing methods. Both two-plant combinations of foods (i.e., maize as nymphal food then green bean as adult food, and green bean as nymphal food then maize as adult food) generally prolonged adult longevity, improved female fecundity, and higher egg hatching rate compared with maize or green bean as food for both nymphs and adults. The combination of nymphs with maize and adults with green bean showed the highest population growth rate for both individual and group rearing of mirid bugs. Host food switching greatly promoted the population growth of A. lucorum, and suggests a new diet for laboratory rearing of A. lucorum.

The present study investigated the patterns of microorganisms in an artificial larval diet during Dacus ciliatus (Diptera; Tephritidae) larval development. Microbial population contents in the diet of total heterotrophic bacteria, yeast and molds, coliform and lactobacilli, and their dynamics during development, were monitored. Initially, the microbial composition in diet trays failing to produce viable pupae and in trays successfully producing pupae and adult flies was characterized. The failing diet trays contained large populations of lactobacilli that increased during larval development, and low populations of coliforms. In contrast, the successful diet showed an increasing population of coliforms and a low, or undetected, population of lactobacilli. To study the hypothesis that lactobacilli affect D. ciliatus larval development, we conducted controlled inoculation experiments in which Lactobacillus plantarum was added into fresh diet at the time of egg seeding. L. plantarum inoculated trays showed no production of D. ciliatus. Control trays without lactobacilli inoculation showed variable results. One tray successfully produced viable pupae and adults, and showed a slight and slow increase in the indigenous populations of lactobacilli. The second tray, however, failed to produce pupae and showed a fast increase of the indigenous lactobacilli to very high levels. Monitored pH trends in L. plantarum-inoculated diet showed a sharp pH decrease during the first 4 days of larval development from 5 to less than 4 units, while successful diet, producing viable D. ciliatus pupae and adults, showed a moderate pH drop during most of the larval development period. The paper discusses the possible ecological interactions between D. ciliatus larvae, the microbial content of the diet and the physical properties of the diet. The discussion also points out at the usefulness of this approach in understanding and managing mass production parameters of tephritid fruit flies industrial diets used for Sterile Insect Technique.

Egg parasitoid rearing on factitious hosts is an important step to reduce costs and increase availability of the biocontrol agent but it requires quality control to achieve success in field conditions. To this end, this study evaluated the quality of Telenomus remus (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) reared on Corcyra cephalonica (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) for until 45 generations. In the first bioassay, we evaluated the body size of the laboratory-produced parasitoids. In the second bioassay, flight activity was examined, measuring the percentage of ‘flyers’, ‘walkers’ and ‘deformed’ parasitoids. The third bioassay assessed parasitism on Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) eggs. Our data indicate that the laboratory-reared parasitoid neither lost its ability to fly nor to parasitize S. frugiperda eggs. In conclusion, quality did not decrease significantly during 45 generations, and therefore rearing of T. remus on C. cephalonica as factitious host promises to be successful.

Cotesia urabae is a solitary larval endoparasitoid that was introduced into New Zealand in 2011 as a classical biological control agent against Uraba lugens. A detailed knowledge of its reproductive biology is required to optimize mass rearing efficiency. In this study, the courtship and mating behaviour of C. urabae is described and investigated from a series of experiments, conducted to understand the factors that influence male mating success. Cotesia urabae males exhibited a high attraction to virgin females but not mated females, whereas females showed no attraction to either virgin or mated males. Male mating success was highest in the presence of a male competitor. Also, the time to mate was shorter and copulation duration was longer when a male competitor was present. Larger male C. urabae had greater mating success than smaller males when paired together with a single female. This knowledge can now be utilized to improve mass rearing methods of C. urabae for the future.

The sexual performance of Anastrepha ludens males of the Tapachula-7 genetic sexing strain, produced via selection based on mating success, was compared with that of males produced without selection in competition with wild males. Mating competition, development time, survival, mass-rearing quality parameters and pheromone production were compared. The results showed that selection based on mating competitiveness significantly improved the sexual performance of offspring. Development time, survival of larvae, pupae and adults, and weights of larvae and pupae increased with each selection cycle. Differences in the relative quantity of the pheromone compounds (Z)-3-nonenol and anastrephin were observed when comparing the parental males with the F4 and wild males. The implications of this colony management method on the sterile insect technique are discussed.

An artificial diet was developed for mass rearing of the spotted bollworm Earias vittella (Fabricius) in environmentally controlled conditions (27±1°C, 65±5% R. H. and 16:8 h scoto/photophase). The ingredients for 1 l of diet consisted of soybean (Glycine max) flour (60.0 g), chickpea (Cicer arietinum var. kabuli) flour (58.0 g), wheatgerm (16.0 g), dried yeast powder (16.0 g), casein (8.0 g), l-ascorbic acid (2.4 g), cholesterol (0.4 g), methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate (0.4 g), sorbic acid (2.4 g), streptomycin sulphate (0.4 g), agar–agar (16.0 g) and distilled water (820 ml). The artificial diet developed showed a higher development index (3.58) and a higher survival rate (83.4%) compared to the most preferred natural food (okra pods), for which these parameters were 3.09 and 65.0%, respectively. All the ingredients of the diet are easily available and inexpensive. The cost of 1 l of the diet, on which 400 larvae can be reared, is approximately US$ 2.00.

An artificial diet for mass rearing of the tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) from the neonate to adult stage was developed at 27±1°C, 65±5% RH and 16:8 h scoto/photo-phase regime. The diet ingredients consisted of wheat germ (26.0 g), kidney bean flour (51.3 g), chickpea flour (56.0 g), yeast powder (31.6 g), casein (15.2 g), l-ascorbic acid (3.2 g), cholesterol (0.5 g), two multivitamin multimineral capsules, one vitamin E capsule, ABDEC drops (2 ml), castor oil (1 ml), methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate (1.8 g), sorbic acid (1.3 g), streptomycin sulphate (0.25 g), formaldehyde solution (2 ml), agar–agar (16.4 g) and 820 ml distilled water. The new artificial diet successfully supported the growth and development for more than ten generations with enhanced reproductive potential. The mean biological parameters based on rearing of ten continuous generations showed higher pupation (89.2%), emergence (97.2%), survival (86.6%) and fecundity (2486.2 eggs) as compared to the most preferred natural food, castor leaf whose respective recorded values are 80, 75, 60% and 480 eggs. The cost of 1 l of the diet was approximately US$ 2.00 only, on which 200 neonate larvae can be reared. The artificial diet developed is suitable for mass rearing S. litura successfully throughout the year for laboratory and field experimentation as well as for commercial production of nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (Sl NPV).

In studies aimed at optimizing the substrate for rearing Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) under laboratory conditions, the noctuid's oviposition behaviour was studied in the laboratory using pigeonpea leaves, muslin cloth, tissue paper and cotton wool as oviposition substrates in free-choice and no-choice tests. Egg counts revealed the moth's preference for oviposition substrate, in descending order, to be cotton wool, pigeonpea leaves, tissue paper and muslin cloth. The preference index of cotton wool was 65% higher than the least preferred substrate, muslin cloth. A total of 300 eggs per female were laid in the free-choice tests, while 200 were laid in the no-choice assays.

The developmental, oviposition, and mortality rates for the polyphagous earwig Diaperasticus eryihrocephala Olivier feeding on pollen and Ephestia kuehniella Zeller eggs were measured at constant temperatures of 18, 25 and 32 °C. The developmental period for D. erythrocephala required 533 degree-days (DD) above a threshold of 6.7 °C. Egg and larval development rates increased with increasing temperature, with the shortest developmental period being recorded at 32 °C. However, egg and larval mortality and larval malformation rates were significantly higher at 32 than at 25 and 18 °C. Over a period of 60 days, females laid an average of 26.5 eggs at 25 °C and none at 18 °C. Based on the results obtained, it is concluded that of the three temperatures, 25 °C is the most suitable for the laboratory mass rearing of D. erythrocephala.

An artificial diet for rearing the spotted bollworm, Earias vittella (Fabricius) was developed under laboratory conditions (temperature 27 ± 1°C, RH 60 ± 5% and 16:8 h scoto /photophase regime). The diet ingredients consisted of wheatgerm (5 g), seeds of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. var. Pusa 8–6) (50 g) and chickpea (Cicer arietinitm L. var. Kabuli)(35 g) as base materials along with agar-agar (15 g), dried yeast powder (8.0 g), methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate (1.0 g), l-ascorbic acid (1.2 g), sorbic acid (1.0 g), cholesterol (0.2 g), streptomycin sulphate (0.2 g), and multivitamin multimineral and vitamin E capsules (one each). After rearing neonates on okra for 3–4 days, the diet supported the growth and development of E. vittella successfully for eight generations. Larval development on this diet was completed in 11.9 ± 0.66 days against 11.64 days on the pest's preferred natural host, okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Moench. The growth and developmental indices on the artificial diet for the eight generations are reported.

The legume pod-borer, Maruca testulalis was reared in the laboratory for 10 successive generations using a semi-synthetic diet. The diet was composed of locally available soybean flour and cowpea flower powder as basal ingredients. The artificial medium was as suitable as the cowpea host plant for M, testulalis in supporting larval growth and development. Fecundity increased with advancing generations on the artificial medium. Field collected pupae were heavier than diet-reared pupae. However, the fecundity, fertility, adult life span, and sex ratio did not differ between the two rearing regimes. The laboratory-reared insects were of acceptable uniform quality and predictable performance even after 10 successive generations of laboratory rearing. Adult emergence ranged between 70–90%. One litre of diet produced on average 400 pupae or adults with a mean fecundity of 200 eggs per female. One person working 8 hr/day can produce a minimum of 1000 healthy pupae or adults daily. The laboratory rearing management protocol is described.

Several species of Chilo are serious pests of cereal crops. The important species attacking cereals are Chilo agamemnon, C. orichalcociliellus and C. partellus on maize and sorghum; C. auricilius and C. zacconius on sugar-cane, and rice; C. suppressalis on rice; and C. sacchariphagus indicus on sugar-cane. Insects are reared in the laboratory on natural and artificial diets for various purposes, namely for insecticide testing, hormone and pheromone manipulation, biological control, host-plant resistance, etc. Rearing of an insect in the laboratory requires rearing facilities, colony establishment, research and development of rearing techniques, resources, and maintenance of insect quality. All these aspects for rearing major Chilo spp. have been discussed. However, detailed information is available only for C. partellus and C. suppressalis. Techniques used for resistance screening and damage evaluation against spotted stem borer, C. partellus using naturally occurring population and artificial infestation are described.

A low cost artificial diet was formulated from materials which are locally available in Africa. The diet utilized cowpea, sorghum and corn instead of pinto bean and wheat which are widely used in the USA. The new diet was as satisfactory as the pinto bean diet for all the biological criteria tested. On a pinto bean diet, pupation and eclosion required 14.3 ± 1 and 26.3 ± 1 days, respectively. On the cowpea diet, 14.6 ± 1 and 26.9 ± 1 days were required, respectively. Ninety-eight per cent of adults eclosing on each diet were viable. Females eclosing on the cowpea diet laid 739 ± 53 eggs of which 59 ± 2% hatched. On the pinto bean diet, 774 ± 62 eggs were laid per female with 61 ± 2% hatching. Pupal weights were 526 ± 22 and 537 ± 28 mg when larvae were reared on the pinto bean and cowpea diets, respectively. Food consumption and utilization by larvae reared on the new diet were comparable with those of larvae reared on the popular pinto bean diet.

Systems of different technological levels have been developed for the mass-rearing of cassava mealybugs, Phenacoccus manihoti, cassava green mites, Mononychellus tanajoa and their natural enemies. Prototypes have been built and are being evaluated for host plant growth, host insect and mite production and output of natural enemies. One of the prototypes uses a paternoster system in which trays each holding 66 cassava plants rotate around a light source. After each rotation the trays receive and empty a given amount of nutrient solution. The other uses a perforated vertical cylinder holding up to 250 cassava cuttings. The plants are irrigated through a pump or gravity system. Six to eight weeks are required to complete the cycle from planting to harvest of the natural enemies in either system. These systems reduce significantly the labour input required for conventional rearing systems and at the same time improve the reliability and quality of the end product.

Plant resistance research requires many entomological and plant breeding techniques and methodologies of which some are critical to the success of the programme. The entomologist has the responsibility of developing techniques for: providing sufficient numbers of insects for screening and other plant resistance studies; creating uniform and controlled populations of the test insect for identifying and developing resistant germplasm; measuring resistance; and determining mechanisms and bases of resistance. A thorough knowledge of the insect-host plant relationship is essential for developing efficient techniques. Some of the considerations involved in developing these techniques are discussed with selected examples to illustrate various techniques employed in plant resistance to insects research.

A model for mass-rearing of tropical crop-borers has been developed using Maruca testulalis as a case study. Maruca testulalis (Geyer) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) has been reared from egg to adult for three generations on artificial diet at laboratory room temperature ranging between 25−30°C with a 12-hr photoperiod. The total life cycle was completed in 23 days. Average life data from the three generations reared on diet are larval period (13.35 days), pupal period (6.67 days); pupal weight (52.69 mg) for female and (49.68 mg) for male; survival to adult 60.3%; fecundity (257.1) eggs per female.

This paper reviews work on techniques in mass rearing of insect pests, especially stem- and pod-borers. The account covers advances in rearing of insects on native host plants and on artificial diets and possible ways of use of these insects in host plant resistance research.