The ongoing nutrition transition in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC) in South East Asia may have a positive impact on protein nutrition. This study assessed the diversity of plant and animal protein food sources in relation to essential amino acid (EAA) adequacy in a population-based sample (N 1665) in Indonesia. Dietary intakes from in-person 24 h recalls provided data on energy and protein intakes (in g/d) from plants (grains, legumes), meat, poultry and fish, and eggs and dairy. Protein diversity scores were based on the number of protein food sources over 24 h. EAA scores were the ratio of amino acid intakes to recommended values. Protein diversity and EAA scores were then compared across multiple socio-demographic indices. Analysis of variance and χ2 tests were used to test for differences among groups. Energy intakes were 1678 kcal/d for men and 1435 kcal/d for women. Average protein intakes (and prevalence of inadequacy) were 59⋅4 g/d (41⋅7 %) for men and 51⋅5 g/d (51⋅1 %) for women. In regression analyses, higher protein diversity scores were associated with higher protein intakes, more animal protein and less plant protein and with higher EAA scores. Lower protein diversity scores were associated with lower intakes of lysine, leucine and valine relative to requirements, as well as with lower EAA, rural settings, less wealth and less modernisation. Greater diversity of animal protein food sources, observed among groups of higher socio-economic status, was linked to better amino acid adequacy and protein nutrition.

Biomechanical properties of the cell wall (CW) are important for many developmental and adaptive responses in plants. Expansins were shown to mediate pH-dependent CW enlargement via a process called CW loosening. Here, we provide a brief overview of expansin occurrence in plant and non-plant species, their structure and mode of action including the role of hormone-regulated CW acidification in the control of expansin activity. We depict the historical as well as recent CW models, discuss the role of expansins in the CW biomechanics and address the developmental importance of expansin-regulated CW loosening in cell elongation and new primordia formation. We summarise the data published so far on the role of expansins in the abiotic stress response as well as the rather scarce evidence and hypotheses on the possible mechanisms underlying expansin-mediated abiotic stress resistance. Finally, we wrap it up by highlighting possible future directions in expansin research.

Cell–cell adhesion is a fundamental feature of multicellular organisms. To ensure multicellular integrity, adhesion needs to be tightly controlled and maintained. In plants, cell–cell adhesion remains poorly understood. Here, we argue that to be able to understand how cell–cell adhesion works in plants, we need to understand and quantitatively measure the mechanics behind it. We first introduce cell–cell adhesion in the context of multicellularity, briefly explain the notions of adhesion strength, work and energy and present the current knowledge concerning the mechanisms of cell–cell adhesion in plants. Because still relatively little is known in plants, we then turn to animals, but also algae, bacteria, yeast and fungi, and examine how adhesion works and how it can be quantitatively measured in these systems. From this, we explore how the mechanics of cell adhesion could be quantitatively characterised in plants, opening future perspectives for understanding plant multicellularity.

This article examines Indigenous stories that reveal how the land communicates to humans through medicinal plants. The intention is to address a blind spot in new materialist theory, which Zoe Todd has criticized for its lack of attention to Indigenous forms and practices of relational materialism. The main focus of this essay is Indigenous narratives about the sacred plant sweetgrass (known as (wihkaskwa in Cree; wiingaashk in Anishinaabemowin). Reading Robin Wall Kimmerer’s meditation Braiding Sweetgrass and Drew Hayden Taylor’s novel Motorcycles and Sweetgrass, and watching Jessie Short’s 2016 film Sweet Night, I argue that these artists portray sweetgrass as an intermediary between humans and the land, strengthening Indigenous cultural sovereignty and deepening human relationships by reminding people of their shared embodiment and their shared spiritual-territorial connection. The plant is revealed in these works as a teacher, operating through its scent, texture, and literal rootedness to teach humans about their own connectedness to particular living places.

By working at the level of sensation rather than linguistic signification, the sweetgrass is also shown to have an immediate and embodied effect upon the characters in these works. In particular, it offers itself as a gift, and as a conduit of love. I argue that the repeated image of the sweetgrass braid in these works is not exactly a metaphor, but is instead a profound conjoining of the earth and the human body, both submitted to the care of human hands. To braid the earth’s fragrant hair is to treat it in the most intimate way, as a family member or a beloved. It is this human activity of braiding that clarifies the kinship aspect of sweetgrass, showing us that it is not a thing, but a relation. The reciprocity of this relationship shows an Indigenous ethic of engagement with the living material world.

We examined the radiocarbon (14C) reservoir effect in Lake Kutubu using tephrochronology and terrestrial plant material to deliver a precise age-depth profile and sedimentation rates for this lake. Based on the presence of two tephra horizons (Tibito and Olgaboli), we found a reservoir age offset in sediments of between 1490 and 2280 14C yr using the sediment ages derived from the lead-210 (210Pb) dating method. The live submerged biological samples collected exhibited a higher reservoir age offset than the sediment. This is most likely a result of delayed transport of “bomb” 14C from the atmosphere to aquatic and sedimentary system. The 14C reservoir effect increased with distance from the lake inlet and also decreased with depth. Dissolution of 14C-depleted carbon from surrounding limestone and direct in-wash of old soil or vegetation remnants from the catchment are the most likely causes of the 14C reservoir effect. Based on limestone areas mapped in Papua New Guinea, we indicate lakes which may be subject to a significant 14C reservoir effect. The results of this study demonstrate the magnitude of the 14C reservoir effect in lakes and provide insights to the correct interpretation of past environmental and archaeological events in PNG.

Over the last few decades botanic gardens worldwide have been encouraged to adopt complementary measures for the conservation of plant species from their own regions, combining in situ conservation efforts with ex situ methods, both in cultivation and in storage. This integrated approach is particularly important for botanic gardens in the tropics, which face the challenge of conserving a highly diverse and often threatened flora. We gathered information on the occurrence of threatened species in the natural vegetation reserves of 21 Brazilian botanic gardens. The data were collected from herbarium records in the database of the National Centre for Flora Conservation, and from the available plant inventories of these reserves. The results indicate that 148 species from the List of Threatened Species of Brazilian Flora are recorded as having been collected in the reserves. Of these, 51 species were maintained in the living collections of 18 botanic gardens and 83 species were recorded in federally protected areas. The occurrence of threatened species in the reserves of botanic gardens highlights the scientific value of these areas, as well as their biological, social and cultural importance for conservation. The results may be used to inform the planning of integrated conservation strategies for threatened species.

Mites use the leaf domatia of many woody plant species in Australasia and North America. Different types of leaf domatia, including pits, pockets and tuft domatia, are present among plant species in disturbed forests, plantations and gardens of Bangladesh in South Asia. These structures are frequently occupied by mites. Pooling across all species, domatia were often (66%) occupied by mites and used by them for shelter, egg-laying and development. On average, 70% of all mites on leaves were found in domatia, and over three-quarters of these were potentially beneficial (i.e. of predaceous or microbivorous taxa) to the plant. Further, when species were pooled across sites, leaves of domatia-bearing plants had significantly more predaceous mites than those of plants without domatia. These results are consistent with the patterns of mite-domatia association reported in Australasia, North America and North Asia and with predictions of mutualism between plants and mites.

Alternative splicing is an important cellular mechanism that increases the diversity of gene products. The study of alternatively spliced genes reported so far in plants is far less documented than that in mammals, but considerable results have been reported, showing the role of these genes in regulating mechanisms, influencing factors, and specificities and function of alternative splicing in plants. This review summarizes briefly the major progress made on alternative splicing in plants.

Although fungi are fundamentally important in our every day lives, the Kingdom is largely ignored by the National Curriculum in the United Kingdom. Consequently, children are missing out on being taught about a crucially important group of organisms. This paper aims to show the deficiencies in the curriculum specifications in UK primary and secondary schools, and describes a range of British Mycological Society learning resources designed to remedy the situation. These ready-made (and classroom-tested) lessons and workshop sessions cover a range of fungal topics from cell structure and function, through biotechnology to health topics and plant growth and disease. The resources include games and activities, aiming to increase knowledge and awareness of fungi in an active, entertaining way and thereby maintain interest in biology as a science.

Introduction. Root restriction occurs when seedlings are grown in increasingly small containers and it reduces plant growth in different ways. Therefore, the objectives of our study were to investigate the effects of varying container sizes and irrigation frequency on growth parameters of ‘Rough lemon’ (C. limon) plants Maseno, Kenya. Materials and methods. The treatments tested the effect of three container volumes (1.7 L, 2.7 L and 4.5 L) and three irrigation frequencies [every day (W1), every two days (W2) and every 3 days (W3)]. The design of the experiment was completely randomized with three replications. Growth parameters studied were plant height, canopy height, shoot and root weight, number of leaves and shoot to root ratio. Results and discussion. Increasing container volumes generally increased the height of plants, height of canopy, weight of whole plants and weight of roots, but it did not affect number of leaves, stem diameter or shoot to root ratio. Irrigation frequency increased number of leaves, height of plants, height of canopy, stem diameter and weight of shoots and roots, but this factor had no effect on weight of whole plants. These findings are explained by reduced root restriction in the largest container volumes. Conclusion. Increasing container volumes from 1.7 L to 4.5 L and irrigation frequency from every 3 days to every day increases plant growth as expressed in the various plant growth parameters.

To explore possible mechanisms of intron-mediated enhancement of gene expression, the features of PAT1 intron 1 required to elevate mRNA accumulation were systematically tested in transgenic Arabidopsis. This intron is remarkably resilient, retaining some ability to increase mRNA accumulation when splicing was prevented by mutation of 5′ and 3′ splice sites, branchpoint sequences, or when intron U-richness was reduced. Enhancement was abolished by simultaneously eliminating branchpoints and the 5′ splice site, structures involved in the first two steps of spliceosome assembly. Although this suggests that the splicing machinery is required, intron splicing is clearly not enough to enhance mRNA accumulation. Five other introns were all efficiently spliced but varied widely in their ability to increase mRNA levels. Furthermore, PAT1 intron 1 was spliced but lost the ability to elevate mRNA accumulation when moved to the 3′ UTR. These findings demonstrate that splicing per se is neither necessary nor sufficient for an intron to enhance mRNA accumulation, and suggest a mechanism that requires intron recognition by the splicing machinery but also involves nonconserved intron sequences.

Chemical information, carried by genes, is one of several types of information important for the functioning of cells and organisms. While genes govern the two-dimensional flow of information, the cell walls are at the basis of a structural, three-dimensional framework of plant form and growth. Recent data show the walls to be a cellular ‘organelle’ undergoing dynamic changes in response to a plethora of stimuli. In this review, an integrated approach, rooted in the organismal perspective, is taken to consider the role of cell walls in the biology of plants. First, the complexity of molecular and biochemical events leading to the biosynthesis of wall components is described within the framework of its spatial cellular organisation, and the major regulatory check-points are characterised. Second, cell walls form a structural and functional continuum within the whole plant and thus could be defined in relation to the protoplasts that produce them and in relation to the plant itself. Model systems of suspension-cultured cells are used to reveal the existence of a bidirectional exchange of information between the protoplast and its walls. The ‘plasticity’ of plant cell reactions, seen in defence responses or in changes in wall composition, to e.g. stress, plant growth regulators or chemical agents as well as the role of cell walls and/or wall components in somatic embryogenesis are also discussed. Third, being a continuum within the plant body, the walls fulfil vital functions in plant growth and development. The examples characterised include the determination of cellular polarity and the plane of cell division, cytokinesis, and the role of plasmodesmata in cell-to-cell communication and the formation of functional symplastic domains. Fourth, the exocellular control of morphogenetic processes is described and the potential of cell walls as determinants or reservoirs of positional information is indicated. Particular emphasis is put on the (bio)chemical signals coming through or derived from cell walls as well as the mechanical properties of the walls. Based on those data, the ‘plant body’ concept is formulated. The plant is thus treated as a unit filled with intertwining networks: (1) symplastic, (2) the endomembrane system and (3) cytoskeletal, with cell walls providing an architectural scaffolding and communication ports formed within (4) the cytoskeleton-plasma membrane-cell wall continuum.

The high incidence of disease is one of the major constraints to smallholder poultry production systems in Africa. In order to control various poultry diseases, ethnoveterinary medicine is widely practised by poor village farmers. Natural products, especially those which are locally available, are generally used. The use of ethnoveterinary medicine can be considered sustainable as it is economical, culturally acceptable and ecologically sound. Although village poultry farmers claim that these practices are effective, there is an urgent need for applied research to substantiate their assertions.

A new taxon of probable early gymnosperms is described from permineralised specimens showing excellent preservation of the tissues, from the late Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian), Brigantian, deposits of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Stanwoodia gen. nov., represented by the single species S. kirktonensis sp. nov., shows the combination of a primitive protostelic organisation with a dense secondary wood. It closely compares to the enigmatic genus Bilignea which was formerly referred with some reservations to the Cordaitales. Another interest of the new plant concerns the excellent preservation of the phloem with at least three different types of constituent cells including fibres. Stanwoodia also exhibits the oldest well-documented evidence of a sequent periderm or rhytidome in fossil plants.