The results of radiocarbon variation studies observed in annual tree rings from the NW Pacific (USA Northwest) (Stuiver and Braziunas 1993) and Europe (England, Brehm et al. 2021; Slovakia, Povinec 1977, 1987) are reviewed with the aim of better understanding the 11-year radiocarbon cycle and possible impacts of solar proton events on 14C levels in the atmosphere and biosphere. The average Δ14C amplitude in tree rings for the period of 1798–1944 was 1.3 ± 0.3‰, the average periodicity was 11 ± 1 years, and the average time shift between the sunspot numbers and Δ14C records was 3 ± 1 years. A new solar activity minimum (Gleissberg minimum, 1878–1933) has been identified in the Δ14C data sets from the NW Pacific and England, showing Δ14C excess of 7‰, comparable to the Dalton minimum (1797–1823). No significant changes in Δ14C levels were identified that could be associated with solar proton events during 1800–1950.

A high-resolution multiproxy lake sediment dataset, comprising lithology, radiography, μXRF elemental, magnetic susceptibility (MS), δ13C, and δ18O measurements since ca. AD 400 is presented in this study. Changes in lithology, radiography, magnetic susceptibility (MS), δ13C, and δ18O reflect wet/dry climate periods, whereas variability in log(Ca/K) can reflect warm/cold climate periods. Analyses of the multiproxy results allow the distinction of several climate periods, which may be associated with climatic phenomena such as changes in North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and/or solar activity. The influence of NAO−/NAO+ (negative/positive) is suggested to be related with the southward/northward displacement of the storm tracks resulting from the NAO−/NAO+ phases. For solar activity, the influence is explained through a direct increase in solar heating leading to calcite precipitation. The Dark Ages Cold Period (DACP, AD 450–750) reflects cold-dry climate conditions at this site, indicative of a positive North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO+) and low solar activity. The Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA, AD 950–1250) exhibits wet-dry-wet and warm-cold-warm climate conditions. The wet/dry periods likely are associated with NAO−/NAO+, respectively, and the warm/cold period may reflect relatively high/low solar activity. The Little Ice Age (LIA, AD 1400–1850) is characterized by dry and cold climate conditions, suggesting the influence of NAO+ and low solar activity. Comparison of the results of this study with local and regional results suggests a generally similar climate pattern, which is indicative of similar climate mechanisms. The contradictions can be associated with age-related uncertainties, orographic differences, and/or other regional teleconnections.

The Pioneer Venus and Venus Express missions, and the Mars Express and MAVEN missions, along with numerous Earth orbiters carrying space physics and aeronomy instruments, have utilized the increasing availability of space weather observations to provide better insight into the impacts of present-day solar activity on the atmospheres of terrestrial planets. Of most interest among these are the responses leading to escape of either ion or neutral constituents, potentially altering both the total atmospheric reservoirs and their composition. While debates continue regarding the role(s) of a planetary magnetic field in either decreasing or increasing these escape rates, observations have shown that enhancements can occur in both situations in response to solar activity-related changes. These generally involve increased energy inputs to the upper atmospheres, increases in ion production, and/or increases in escape channels, e.g. via interplanetary field penetration or planetary field ‘opening’. Problems arise when extrapolations of former loss rates are needed. While it is probably safe to suggest lower limits based simply on planet age multiplied by currently measured ion and neutral escape rates, the evolution of the Sun, including its activity, must be folded into these estimations. Poor knowledge of the history of solar activity, especially in terms of coronal mass ejections and solar wind properties, greatly compounds the uncertainties in related planetary atmosphere evolution calculations. Prospects for constraining their influences will depend on our ability to do a better job of solar activity history reconstruction.

High-resolution climate archives of the Late Holocene are essential in the study of paleoclimatic dynamics and for understanding the importance of natural and anthropogenic influences on past and future climate changes. Here, we present well-dated X-ray fluorescence scanning records retrieved from a varved sediment core from Lake Kusai. These records show the decadal- to centennial-scale paleoclimatic variability of the northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau over the last 2000 yr. Ca is mainly related to the precipitation of authigenic carbonates and is a proxy for temperature changes. The Ca record of Lake Kusai is well-correlated with the variations and periodicities of solar activity. Therefore, solar output can be suggested as being the predominant forcing mechanism of decadal- to centennial-scale temperature fluctuations over the last 2000 yr. The evolution of effective moisture was inferred from the log-ratios of Rb/Sr, which demonstrated synchronous changes with the typical Indian summer monsoon record from Dongge Cave. These results indicate that the decadal- to centennial-scale effective moisture evolution of the northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is mainly influenced by the Indian summer monsoon. Additionally, we have not found the evident periodicities of solar activity in our effective moisture record over the last 2000 yr.

We consider several tracers of magnetic activity that separate cycle-dependent contributions to the background solar magnetic field from those that are independent of the cycle. The main message is that background fields include two relative separate populations. The background fields with a strength up to 100 Mx cm−2 are very poorly correlated with the sunspot numbers and vary little with the phase of the cycle. In contrast, stronger magnetic fields demonstrate pronounced cyclic behaviour. Small-scale solar magnetic fields demonstrate features of fractal intermittent behaviour, which requires quantification. We investigate how the observational estimate of the solar magnetic flux density B depends on resolution D in order to obtain the scaling In BD = −k In D + a in a reasonably wide range. The quantity k demonstrates cyclic variations typical of a solar activity cycle. k depends on the magnetic flux density, i.e. the ratio of the magnetic flux to the area over which the flux is calculated, at a given instant. The quantity a demonstrates some cyclic variation, but it is much weaker than in the case of k. The scaling is typical of fractal structures. The results obtained trace small-scale action in the solar convective zone and its coexistence with the conventional large-scale solar dynamo based on differential rotation and mirror-asymmetric convection. Here we discuss the message for solar dynamo studies hidden in the above results.

We give an overview of Focus Meeting 5 on the new field of Terra-Astronomy.

We are performed the digitization of the prominences from the full disk observations of the Sun in the CaIIK line Kodaikanal Observatory for the period 1904-1954. These data were supplemented by digitization of prominences data on Wolfer atlases for the period 1887-1900 and observations of Kislovodsk Observatory in the period 1957-2017. Particular attention was paid to study of the polar crown prominences drift time. The time interval of the prominence drift is ambiguous from the sunspot cycle amplitude.

Digitization of solar activity data over a period of more than 100 years has been performed. The database presents the characteristics of sunspots, sunspot umbras, filaments, plages in CaIIK line and prominences. The series of vector boundaries and photometric properties of the selected objects are created.

The characteristics of individual types of solar activity were determined. An interactive atlas of solar activity has been created, on which daily maps of solar activity, characteristics of individual elements and summary indices of solar activity are presented. The indices of solar activity were reconstructed and the analysis was carried out.

We could find a new 5 year periodicity in the occurrences of peaks in sunspot activity and inferred deviations of annual Indian monsoon rainfall variations from the normal during the Maunder minimum (MM) period. This result is explained in terms of solar dynamo functioning in a different mode from normal during the MM where quadrupole field (first harmonic, 5-5.5 years) dominate over dipole field (fundamental, 11 years) causing extreme north south asymmetry in sunspot activity.

The recalibration of the sunspot number series has established a new standard version for sunspot time series that requires updating of prior results based on the calibration. These recent sunspot number corrections mean a change in the results of the previous correlational studies of ISSN with geomagnetic indices, such as the aa-index. In this paper, we investigate the correlation between the old and new sunspot numbers ISSN and SN and their relationship with the aa index through time series, using the methods of Echer et. al (2004), Verma & Trippathi (2016), Stamper et. al (1996), and Feynman (1982).

Hemispheric asymmetry is one of the significant parameters related to the action of solar dynamo. Comparison of hemispheric activities during various phases are found out for solar cycles 12 to 23. Asymmetry of solar activity shows extremum values during the cycles 14 and 19. Lowest and highest levels of north-south asymmetry are mainly observed during minimum and maximum phases respectively of solar cycles. A change of phase is found to be existing between the asymmetries at solar maxima and the whole cycle, after solar cycle 15 and 18. Also, for cycles 17-19, the behaviour of the asymmetry is observed to be peculiar and different from that of the other cycles. Periodic behaviour of north-south asymmetry mainly occurs in 8.8 years and noticed very high during the cycles 18-22.

Reconstruction of regions with an open configuration of magnetic force lines was carried out according to synoptic Hα maps over a period of more than 100 years. It is shown that the maximum area of open structures in the cycle of solar activity is reached in the descending phase, 1÷2 years before the onset of the minimum. The total area of open structures in the current cycle n has a high correlation (r ~ 0.8) with the amplitude of the next activity cycle n + 1. There is also a secular envelope with a maximum in the middle of the 20th century.

The Earth's atmosphere and the Earth's magnetic field protects local life by shielding us against Solar particle flows, just like the sun's magnetic field deflects cosmic particle radiation. Generally, magnetic fields can affect terrestrial life such as migrating animals. Thus, terrestrial life is connected to astronomical interrelations between different magnetic fields, particle flows and radiation. Mass strandings of whales have often been documented, but their causes and underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We investigated the possible reasons for this phenomenon based on a series of strandings of 29 male, mostly bachelor, sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in the southern North Sea in early 2016. Whales’ magnetic sense may play an important role in orientation and migration, and strandings may thus be triggered by geomagnetic storms. This approach is supported by the following: (1) disruptions of the Earth's magnetic field by Solar storms can last about 1 day and lead to short-term magnetic latitude changes corresponding to shifts of up to 460 km; (2) many of these disruptions are of a similar magnitude to more permanent geomagnetic anomalies; (3) geomagnetic anomalies in the area north of the North Sea are 50–150 km in diameter; and (4) sperm whales swim about 100 km day−1, and may thus be unable to distinguish between these phenomena. Sperm whales spend their early, non-breeding years in lower latitudes, where magnetic disruptions by the sun are weak and thus lack experience of this phenomenon. ‘Naïve’ whales may therefore become disoriented in the southern Norwegian Sea as a result of failing to adopt alternative navigation systems in time and becoming stranded in the shallow North Sea.

It is well known that the energy for solar eruptions comes from magnetic fields in solar active regions. Magnetic energy storage and dissipation are regarded as important physical processes in the solar corona. With incomplete theoretical modeling for eruptions in the solar atmosphere, activity forecasting is mainly supported with statistical models. Solar observations with high temporal and spatial resolution continuously from space well describe the evolution of activities in the solar atmosphere, and combined with three dimensional reconstruction of solar magnetic fields, makes numerical short-term (within hours to days) solar activity forecasting possible. In the current report, we propose the erupting frequency and main attack direction of solar eruptions as new forecasts and present the prospects for numerical short-term solar activity forecasting based on the magnetic topological framework in solar active regions.

By applying Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to solar magnetic synoptic maps in cycle 21-23 obtained with Wilcox Solar Observatory we derived analytical expressions for two principal components and their summary curve of solar magnetic field oscillations defined by dipole magnetic sources. In this paper we extrapolate backwards three millennia the summary curve describing solar activity and compare it with the relevant historic data. The extrapolated summary curve shows a remarkable resemblance to the sunspot and terrestrial activity reported in the past millennia: the Maunder Minimum (1645-1715), Wolf minimum (1200), Oort minimum (1010-1050), Homer minimum (800-900 BC), the medieval warm period (900-1200), the Roman warm period (400-10BC). We note that Sporer minimum (1460-1550) derived from the increased abundance of isotope Δ14C is likely produced by a strong increase of galactic cosmic rays caused by a supernova Vela Junior occurred in the Southern hemisphere.

We reconstructed the centennial climate changes for the period of 9–7 cal ka BP in the upper region of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River Delta plain. A general warming and wetting trend from 8560 to 7220 cal yr BP was indicated by the decrease in Quercus (deciduous) and increases in Quercus (evergreen), Pinus, and Polypodiaceae spores. However, there were several brief climate fluctuations. A notable palynological change, from regional assemblages dominated by arboreal pollen to local assemblages mainly consisting of nonarboreal pollen, reflects climate fluctuations. The key indices of Quercus (deciduous), Pinus, herbs, fern spores, and palynological concentrations showed similar signs of centennial climate fluctuations. We suggest that the climate changes of the Dongge Cave and Yangtze River Delta regions were mainly affected by the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) during the period of 9–7 cal ka BP. The general warming trend may be associated with an intensified EASM, and solar activity may be one of the important factors driving the centennial climate changes. The ~8.2 ka event was also recorded in the Yangtze River Delta region, which suggests that there was a close relationship between the EASM and Greenland climate during the early Holocene.

We have obtained a high-resolution sedimentary record covering the last 6500 yr from a maar in Cheju Island, Korea, in order to reconstruct the history of variations in the eolian quartz flux (EQF) and hence Asian dust. The long-term variation of EQF reveals three intervals: a period of high EQF (4000–2000 cal yr B.P.) and two periods of low EQF (6500–4000 cal yr B.P. and 2000 cal yr B.P. to present), which have been affected by the East Asian monsoon due to insolation change and the cold air activity in high latitudes correlated with polar high-pressure systems. This long-term variation is superimposed by millennial- and centennial-scale fluctuations with periodicities of 1137, 739, 214, 162, 137, 127, and 111 yr, implying drier conditions in the source areas in China. The detrended EQF record correlates visually and statistically (cross-spectral analysis) with the atmospheric Δ14C record (solar proxy). The centennial-scale variability in EQF may be affected by the solar activity through the Sun–East Asian monsoon linkage.

The history of variations in water level of Lake Constance, as reconstructed from sediment and pollen analysis of a sediment sequence from the archaeological site of Arbon-Bleiche 3, shows an abrupt rise in lake level dendrochronologically dated to 5375 yr ago (5320 yr relative to AD 1950). This event, paralleled by the destruction of the Neolithic village by fire, provoked the abandonment of this prehistoric lake-shore location established in the former shallow bay of Arbon-Bleiche, and was the last of a series of three episodes of successively higher lake level, the first occurring at 5600–5500 cal yr B.P. The dendrochronologically dated rise event was synchronous with an abrupt increase in atmospheric 14C. This supports the hypothesis of an abrupt climate change forced by varying solar activity. Moreover, the three successive episodes of higher lake level between 5600 and 5300 cal yr B.P. at Arbon-Bleiche 3 coincided with climatic cooling and/or changes in moisture conditions in various regions of both hemispheres. This period corresponds to the mid-Holocene climate transition (onset of the Neoglaciation) and suggests inter-hemispheric linkages for the climate variations recorded at Arbon-Bleiche 3. This mid-Holocene climate reversal may have resulted from complex interactions between changes in orbital forcing, ocean circulation and solar activity. Finally, despite different seasonal hydrological regimes, the similarities between lake-level records from Lake Constance and from Jurassian lakes over the mid-Holocene period point to time scale as a crucial factor in considering the possible impact of climate change on environments.

Recently, the study of the influence of solar activity on the Earth's climate received strong attention, mainly due to the possibility, proposed by several authors, that global warming is not anthropogenic, but is due to an increase in solar activity. Although this possibility has been ruled out, there are strong evidences that solar variability has an influence on Earth's climate, in regional scales.

Here we review some of these evidences, focusing in a particular aspect of climate: atmospheric moisture and related quantities like precipitation. In particular, we studied the influence of activity on South American precipitations during centuries. First, we analyzed the stream flow of the Paraná and other rivers of the region, and found a very strong correlation with Sunspot Number in decadal time scales. We found a similar correlation between Sunspot Number and tree-ring chronologies, which allows us to extend our study to cover the last two centuries.

This work presents the first results of a study about possible effects on the surface temperature during short periods of lower fluxes of Galactic Cosmic Rays at Earth, called Forbush Decreases. There is a hypothesis that the Galactic Cosmic Ray flux decreases cause changes on the physical-chemical properties of the atmosphere. We have conducted a study to investigate these possible effects on several latitudinal regions, around the ten strongest FDs occurred from 1987 to 2015. We have found a possible increase on the surface temperature at middle and high latitudes during the occurence of these events.