The composition of the raw legume Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. athropurpurea (PhVa) and its effects on the metabolism of young growing rats have been evaluated. The levels of protein, unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrate, fibre and bioactive factors present in PhVa were comparable with those in other Phaseolus vulgaris varieties. However, the lectins of PhVa were predominantly of the leucoagglutinating type, and concentrated in the albumin protein fraction. Rats fed a diet (110 g total protein, 16·0 M/g) in which PhVa meal provided about half of the protein excreted high levels of N in faeces and urine, and grew more slowly, than rats fed a high-quality control diet (ad libitum or pair-fed). Small intestine, large intestine and pancreas weights were increased (by almost 100 %, P<0·05), whilst skeletal muscle, thymus and spleen weights were reduced. Blood insulin 16·20 v. 0·50 m/, P<0·05, thyroxine, glucose, protein (60·5 v. 48·3 /, P<0·05) and LDL-cholesterol were lowered, whilst glucagon (155·3 v. 185·4 n/, P<0·05), triiodothyronine and urea were elevated, as were urinary urea, creatinine and glucose. These changes in the local (gut) and systemic metabolism of rats were probably mediated primarily by lectins in PhVa, which were concentrated in the albumin protein fraction, whereas in many other Phaseolus vulgaris lines they are distributed across the globulin and albumin fractions.

Patterns of milk production and circulating blood metabolite and hormone concentrations were determined throughout a 14-week lactation in groups of 10 twin-rearing East Friesland EF) and Scottish Blackface (SBF) ewes. All ewes were offered, ad libitum, a pelleted diet throughout the experiment and milk yields were measured weekly. Pooled blood samples (six samples, 20-min intervals), collected before feeding, on 1 day of each week, were assayed for plasma glucose, non-esterfied fatty acids, 3-hydroxybutyrate (3-OHB), albumin, total protein, insulin, growth hormone (GH), cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine (T4), and triiodothyronine (T3). At weeks 2, 4,10, and 14, samples were collected at 20-min intervals for 8 h and assayed individually for plasma insulin, GH, cortisol, and prolactin. Mean daily intakes and milk yields of ewes were similar in the two breeds. Mean pre-feeding concentrations of most blood metabolites during the experiment were also similar in ewes of the two breeds but SBF ewes had higher plasma concentrations of 3-OHB (0·67 v. 0·43 mmol/l; P < 0·01) and total protein (73·2 v. 66·4 g/l; P < 0·001). SBF ewes had higher overall mean concentrations of insulin (9·53 v. 4·36 mU/l; P < 0·001), cortisol (7·59 v. 573 μg/l; P < 0·05), prolactin (457·1 v. 316·1 μg/l; P < 0·05), and T3 (1.32 v. 1·12 μg/l; P < 0·001). GH and T4 profiles were similar in the two breeds. Following the daily introduction of fresh food, there were significant increases in concentration of insulin (P < 0·001) and cortisol (P < 0·01) while there was a decrease in mean concentrations of GH (P < 0·001) and prolactin (P < 0·01). There were significant interactions between breed and feeding effects on insulin, GH, cortisol and prolactin concentrations. Patterns of milk production in ewes of these breeds were associated with changes in insulimGH ratios both before and after feeding which may be of a causal nature.

Twenty Friesian (group 1) and 20 buffalo (group 2) calves and 14 of each of lactating Friesians (group 3) and lactating buffaloes (group 4) were maintained in middle of winter conditions of Egypt for 2 months. The calves (groups 1 and 2) were of similar age (6 to 7 months) and average body weight (120 kg). The lactating animals were in the fifth season of lactation, non-pregnant, in mid lactation and yielded 12 to 14 kg milk on average daily. Similar groups of animals of the same types (groups 5, 6, 7 and 8, respectively), numbers, live body weights and physiological status were maintained under hot summer conditions for 2 months. The effect of hyperthermia during summer season on Friesians and buffaloes compared with winter was also studied.

The results showed that buffaloes were more tolerant than Friesians to the environmental conditions of Egypt. In winter, buffalo calves had poorer (P < 0·05) food efficiencies (kg gain per MJ net energy), higher dry matter intakes (DMI, P < 0·05) and total lipids in the plasma (P < 0·01) than Friesians, while the contrary occurred in total proteins, albumin, phospholipids and cholesterol (P < 0·05). In summer, growth rate and the concentrations of total lipids, phospholipids and cholesterol in the plasma were higher (P < 0·01), and total proteins and albumin were lower (P< 0·01) in buffalo than in Friesian calves. In summer, in Friesians, both DMI and growth rate decreased (P < 0·05) and food efficiency as kg weight gain per MJ net energy was poorer (P < 0·05). In the plasma total proteins and albumin increased (P < 0·01) but haematocrit %, phospholipids and cholesterol decreased (P < 0·05). In buffalo calves, only total proteins and albumin increased (P < 0·01) due to heat stress.

In lactating buffaloes, food efficiency was poorer (P < 0·01) and DMI and plasma haematocrit % were significantly higher, while the concentrations of total proteins, globulin, phospholipids and cholesterol in the plasma, and milk yield were significantly lower than in lactating Friesians in the winter season. Lactating buffaloes were poorer (P < 0·01) in food efficiency and had lower concentrations of total proteins, globulin and cholesterol than lactating Friesians in the summer (P < 0·01).

Changes in plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) levels after feeding were investigated in dairy cows. Three HolsteinFriesian lactating cows given concentrates at 06.00 and 13.00 h and hay at 16.30 h were used. Blood samples were taken from the jugular vein from 0 (before feeding, 13.00 h) to 6 h at 1-h intervals. The immunoreactivity of CCK was expressed in terms of the CCK-8 equivalent. The plasma concentration of CCK was not changed over the experimental period. This result might be reflected by the continuous flow of digesta from the rumen.

Milk yields and blood metabolite and hormone profiles of a total of 40 Greyface ewes lambing in January or April and suckling single (S) or twin (T) lambs were determined. Ewes were given a fixed level of feeding throughout the first 10 weeks of lactation. Milk yields were measured weekly. Pooled blood samples (six samples; 20-min intervals), collected at weekly intervals for the first 10 weeks of lactation, were assayed for glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEVA), 3β-hydroxybutyrate, urea, albumin, total protein, insulin, growth hormone (GH), cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). At weeks 2, 4 and 10 of lactation samples were collected at 20-min intervals for 8 h and assayed individually for insulin, GH, cortisol and prolactin. Mean daily milk yield was lower in S than in T ewes in January (1·93 v. 2·33 kg/day; P < 0·05) and April-lambing ewes (1·95 v. 2·28 kg/day; P > 0·05). Profiles of NEFA and 3β-hydroxybutyrate indicated that T ewes were mobilizing adipose tissue at a greater rate than S ewes. The higher milk yield and rate of fat mobilization in T ewes compared with S ewes was associated with lower overall mean insulin concentrations (3·37 v. 5·04 mil per I; P < 0·002) and higher GH (6·29 v. 2·77 μg/l; P < 0·001) and cortisol (7·04 v. 3·64 μg/l; P < 0·001) concentrations in the weekly samples. Differences between rearing groups in mean concentrations of T4 and T3 were generally small and not significant. Mean prolactin concentrations were much lower in the January- than in the April-lambing ewes (73·7 v. 270·2 μ/l; P < 0·001) but this difference was not associated with a difference in milk yield. Substantial increases in insulin and GH concentrations generally followed feeding but the post-prandial profiles were dependent on stage of lactation; while GH concentrations increased following feeding at weeks 2 and 4 of lactation, there was generally a decline in post-prandial concentrations at week 10. It is concluded that the patterns of insulin and GH secretion during the hours following feeding may be an important determinant of the rate of tissue mobilization and milk yield in ewes subject to differences in demand for milk created by differences in litter sizes.

Voluntary food intake, milk production and blood characteristics were measured in mares between the 3rd month before foaling and the first 5 weeks of lactation. The effect of breed during pregnancy was determined using 15 light mares and eight heavy mares (522 and 763 kg live weight (LW) after foaling respectively). The effect of parity was studied on light mares (seven were primiparous and eight were multiparous). In lactation, only four primiparous and four multiparous light mares were retained. Diet consisted of 900 g hay and 100 g concentrates per kg and was offered ad libitum. Voluntary food intake in pregnancy was higher for heavy mares than for light mares: 15·2 v. 10·3 kg dry matter (DM) daily. This difference was explained by differences in LW, since DM intake was the same when expressed as a fraction of LW or metabolic weight (M). Energy and nitrogen supply exceeded requirements, in the same way for light and heavy mares. No significant variations in blood measurements were observed between light and heavy mares, except for glucose. Primiparous mares ate less DM than multiparous mares in pregnancy: 9·7 v. 10·8 kg DM (P > 0·05), significantly so relative to LW and M. DM intake per kg LW or M depended on the parity. This difference had no effect on blood measurements, except for acetate. During lactation, no other differences in voluntary food intake were observed with regard to parity, whatever the week of lactation. Milk yield was higher for multiparous mares than for primiparous mares (16·6 v. 14·6 kg daily). Gross energy of milk varied according to a similar pattern, principally because of variations in fat concentration (20·2 v. 16·5 g/kg for multiparous and primiparous mares respectively). Energy balance was significantly more positive for multiparous than for primiparous mares.

Five randomized-block experiments were carried out over 2 years using British Friesian cows managed as three separate herds. The effects of offering cows different levels of concentrates, ranging from 0·8 to 7·2 kg/day, in addition to grass silage ad libitum during the winter period on reproductive performance was investigated. The effects of substituting 4 kg/day maize gluten, or 0·8 kg/day fish meal, for part or all of the standard concentrate were also examined.

Neither level of concentrates nor the inclusion of maize-gluten meal significantly affected reproductive performance even where milk production and quality was considerably influenced. The inclusion of fish meal improved conception rates to all services (0·64 v. 0·44; P < 0·05) and reduced the number of services required per conception (1·62 v. 2·31; P < 0·01).

Plasma urea levels were raised consistently by the feeding of fish meal and, with the exception of weeks 2 and 6 of lactation, by the feeding of higher levels of concentrates. From the 6th week of lactation levels of beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) in the blood were significantly higher in the group of cows receiving the highest level of concentrates. The BHB level at week 6 was correlated with the number of services required per conception.

A number of relationships between production factors and fertility are also presented.

When compared with sea water, most marine invertebrates are isosmotic but show varying degrees of ionic regulation, from accumulation of potassium and calcium to reductions of magnesium and sulphate. A reduction of sulphate in pelagic animals such as jellyfish and salps, and an accumulation of ammonium ions in arrow-worms (Sagitta) contribute to their near-neutral buoyancy. Marked reductions in salinity exclude mahy marine invertebrates. In the Baltic, polychaetes, bivalve molluscs and decapod crustaceans are reduced from 193, ninety-two and sixty-four species in the Belt Sea (salinity S 10-30‰) to three, four and two in the Gulf of Finland (salinity S 5-9‰). The chelicerate Limulus can stand a wide range in salinity, a few insect larvae can tolerate concentrations of 200% sea water, while the branchiopod shrimp Artemia can stand crystallising brine (36-37% NaCl). Very few species can tolerate temperatures of 40°C. One such species is the polychaete Alvinella pompejana, a hydrothermal vent animal at East Pacific Ridge (to the W of S America). The harpacticid copepod Tigriopus living in evaporating rockpools has a lethal temperature of 42°C at a salinity of S 90‰, but at S 8‰ that temperature is 34°C. Lack of oxygen and presence of hydrogen sulphide limit the distribution of animals in certain areas. Most active animals have respiratory pigments in their principal body fluid. Burrowing invertebrates such as Arenicola and Lingula have respectively haemoglobin in the blood and haemerythrin in the coelomic fluid, with mean oxygen capacities of 6 ml O2 per 100 ml in each case, compared to 0·6 and 0·5 ml in sea water at 10° and 20°C.