Chapter 6 discusses the limits of a purely accusatory approach in dealing with complex events such as the various types of organizational failure (except, of course, in cases of malicious intent and gross negligence) and its contribution, even if involuntary, to scapegoating. The accusatory approach renders organizational and institutional learning processes problematic, putting an end to complex events with the mere sanctioning of “bad apples.”

In 1971, Richard Nixon declared a national "War on Cancer." Riding high on the success of the Apollo 11 space mission, landing astronauts on the moon for the first time in history, Nixon proclaimed that the United States should enact a national, collective drive to cure the disease by 1976. Much like Nixon sparked a national, collective fervor to rid the world of cancer, societal expectations of science influence its progress. To truly reflect on the arc of discovery, Chapter 20 explores how science can be subservient to culture, and how societal expectations of science play a role in steering the direction of medical research. More specifically, it discusses the role of civic epistemology, citizen science, and civic engagement in influencing the trajectory of research.