Avian malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by Plasmodium spp. protozoa. Although these parasites have been extensively studied in North America and Eurasia, knowledge on the diversity of Plasmodium, its vectors and avian hosts in Africa is scarce. In this study, we report on natural malarial infections in free-ranging sparrows (Passer domesticus) sampled at Giza Governorate, Egypt. Parasites were morphologically characterized as Plasmodium cathemerium based on the examination of thin blood smears from the avian host. Sequencing a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene showed that the parasite corresponded to lineage PADOM02. Phylogenetic analysis showed that this parasite is closely related to the lineages SERAU01 and PADOM09, both of which are attributed to P. cathemerium. Experimental infection of Culex pipiens complex was successful, with ookinetes first detected at 1-day post infection (dpi), oocysts at 4 dpi and sporozoites at 6 dpi. The massive infection of the salivary glands by sporozoites corroborates that Cx. pipiens complex is a competent vector of PADOM02. Our findings confirm that Plasmodium lineage PADOM02 infects sparrows in urban areas along the Nile River, Egypt, and corroborate that Cx. pipiens complex is a highly competent vector for these parasites. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that this lineage corresponds to the morphospecies P. cathemerium and not P. relictum as previously believed.

Water-holding tree holes are main larval habitats for many pathogen vectors, especially mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Along 3 years, the diversity and composition of mosquito species in tree holes of two neighbouring but completely different environments, a city and its adjacent forest, were compared using generalized linear mixed models, PERMANOVA, SIMPER and species association indexes. The city area (Northwest Argentina) is highly relevant epidemiologically due to the presence of Aedes aegypti L. (main dengue vector) and occurrence of dengue outbreaks; the Yungas rainforests are highly biologically diverse. In total seven mosquito species were recorded, in descending order of abundance: Ae. aegypti, Haemagogus spegazzinii Brèthes, Sabethes purpureus (Theobald), Toxorhynchites guadeloupensis Dyar and Knab, Aedes terrens Walker, Haemagogus leucocelaenus Dyar & Shannon and Sabethes petrocchiae (Shannon and Del Ponte). The seven mosquito species were recorded in both city sites and forested areas; however, their mosquito communities significantly diverged because of marked differences in the frequency and relative abundance of some species: Tx. guadeloupensis and Ae. aegypti were significantly more abundant in forest and urban areas, respectively. Positive significant associations were detected between Ae. aegypti, Hg. spegazzinii and Hg. leucocelaenus. The combined presence of Ae. aegypti, Haemagogus and Sabethes in the area also highlight a potential risk of yellow fever epidemics. Overall results show an impoverished tree hole mosquito fauna in urban environments, reflecting negative effects of urbanization on mosquito diversity.

Avian malaria is a vector transmitted disease caused by Plasmodium and recent studies suggest that variation in its prevalence across avian hosts is correlated with a variety of ecological traits. Here we examine the relationship between prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium lineages in southeastern Amazonia and: (1) host ecological traits (nest location, nest type, flocking behaviour and diet); (2) density and diversity of avian hosts; (3) abundance and diversity of mosquitoes; and (4) season. We used molecular methods to detect Plasmodium in blood samples from 675 individual birds of 120 species. Based on cytochrome b sequences, we recovered 89 lineages of Plasmodium from 136 infected individuals sampled across seven localities. Plasmodium prevalence was homogeneous over time (dry season and flooding season) and space, but heterogeneous among 51 avian host species. Variation in prevalence among bird species was not explained by avian ecological traits, density of avian hosts, or mosquito abundance. However, Plasmodium lineage diversity was positively correlated with mosquito abundance. Interestingly, our results suggest that avian host traits are less important determinants of Plasmodium prevalence and diversity in southeastern Amazonia than in other regions in which they have been investigated.

Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae), the main vector of dengue and urban yellow fever in the world, is highly adapted to the human environment. Artificial containers are the most common larval habitat for the species, but it may develop in tree holes and other phytotelmata. This study assessed whether tree holes in San Ramón de la Nueva Orán, a city located in subtropical montane moist forest where dengue outbreaks occur, are relevant as larval habitat for Ae. aegypti and if the species may be found in natural areas far from human habitations. Water holding tree holes were sampled during 3 years once a month along the rainy season using a siphon bottle, in urban and suburban sites within the city and in adjacent forested areas. Larvae and pupae were collected and the presence and volume of water in each tree hole were recorded. Finding Ae. aegypti in forested areas was an isolated event; however, the species was frequently collected from tree holes throughout the city and along the sampling period. Moreover, larvae were collected in considerably high numbers, stressing the importance of taking into account these natural cavities as potential reinfestation foci within dengue control framework.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was evaluated for the rapid identification of ceratopogonid larvae. Optimal sample preparation as evaluated with laboratory-reared biting midges Culicoides nubeculosus was the homogenization of gut-less larvae in 10% formic acid, and analysis of 0·2 mg/ml crude protein homogenate mixed with SA matrix at a ratio of 1:1·5. Using 5 larvae each of 4 ceratopogonid species (C. nubeculosus, C. obsoletus, C. decor, and Dasyhelea sp.) and of 2 culicid species (Aedes aegypti, Ae. japonicus), biomarker mass sets between 27 and 33 masses were determined. In a validation study, 67 larvae belonging to the target species were correctly identified by automated database-based identification (91%) or manual full comparison (9%). Four specimens of non-target species did not yield identification. As anticipated for holometabolous insects, the biomarker mass sets of adults cannot be used for the identification of larvae, and vice versa, because they share only very few similar masses as shown for C. nubeculosus, C. obsoletus, and Ae. japonicus. Thus, protein profiling by MALDI-TOF as a quick, inexpensive and accurate alternative tool is applicable to identify insect larvae of vector species collected in the field.

To advance our restricted knowledge on mosquito biodiversity and distribution in Belgium, a national inventory started in 2007 (MODIRISK) based on a random selection of 936 collection points in three main environmental types: urban, rural and natural areas. Additionally, 64 sites were selected because of the risk of importing a vector or pathogen in these sites. Each site was sampled once between May and October 2007 and once in 2008 using Mosquito Magnet Liberty Plus traps. Diversity in pre-defined habitat types was calculated using three indices. The association between species and environmental types was assessed using a correspondence analysis. Twenty-three mosquito species belonging to traditionally recognized genera were found, including 21 indigenous and two exotic species. Highest species diversity (Simpson 0.765) and species richness (20 species) was observed in natural areas, although urban sites scored also well (Simpson 0.476, 16 species). Four clusters could be distinguished based on the correspondence analysis. The first one is related to human modified landscapes (such as urban, rural and industrial sites). A second is composed of species not associated with a specific habitat type, including the now widely distributed Anopheles plumbeus. A third group includes species commonly found in restored natural or bird migration areas, and a fourth cluster is composed of forest species. Outcomes of this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the designed sampling scheme and support the choice of the trap type. Obtained results of this first country-wide inventory of the Culicidae in Belgium may serve as a basis for risk assessment of emerging mosquito-borne diseases.

Tree-hole phytotelmata encompass the internodal water pools that form in many species of bamboo (Gramineae). Using bamboo traps, we sampled macroinvertebrate communities in a habitat within the subtropical cloud forest of Henri Pittier National Park, Rancho Grande, north-central Venezuela, and quantified the temporal differences in their abundance and composition. In total, 1024 invertebrates were collected during the 7 months between February and August 2008. The insect orders Diptera and Coleoptera were abundant, particularly Culex (Anoedioporpa) conservator Dyar & Knab, Culex (Culex) mollis (Dyar & Knab), Wyeomyia (Wyeomyia) arthrostigma (Lutz) and Toxorhynchites (Lynchiella) theobaldi (Dyar & Knab). The traps also contained predators, detritivores and collectors (filtering and gathering). Macroinvertebrate abundance in the traps was higher during the rainy season. This observation was attributed to a greater abundance of Ephydridae, Blattaria and Culicidae during wetter months, and an increased availability of potential new breeding sites in the environment, which resulted in increased adult eclosion, and higher rates of oviposition in the bamboo traps. Temporal differences in pH and dissolved oxygen levels of trap water were observed.

Programmes involving mosquito research and surveillance are normally focused on the study of aquatic larval stages, but sampling methods are varied and not systematized, which hinders the comparative analysis of ecological data. A standardized method for assessing the richness and abundance of mosquito larval populations of value for the analysis of mosquito diversity is presented. Based on the study of all the aquatic sites in a one hectare sample area with a proportional number of dips according to the size of the aquatic habitat, comparative data can be obtained on species richness and relative abundance of species found between pairs of sites or in the same area at different times. This technique provides information on the total mosquito fauna at each site, helps recognize species of medical importance and estimates the abundance of each species; parameters that are not estimated by the current entomological indexes used in surveillance programmes. The quality of the inventory is obtained by estimation of the efficiency effort. Procedures for calculating alpha, beta and gamma diversity are presented. The technique was validated in a natural and an urban zone at La Mancha, Veracruz, Mexico, over two years of sampling made during different climatic seasons.

Ochlerotatus albifasciatus is a vector of western equine encephalomyelitis in Argentina and a nuisance mosquito affecting beef and dairy production. The objective of this study was to analyze whether environmental proxy data derived from 1 km resolution NOAA-AVHRR images could be useful as a rapid tool for locating areas with higher potential for Oc. albifasciatus activity at a regional scale. Training sites for mosquito abundance categories were 3.3×3.3 km polygons over sampling sites. Abundance was classified into two categories according to a proposed threshold for economic losses. Data of channels 1, 2, 4 and 5 were used to calculate five biophysical variables: normalized differences vegetation index (NDVI), land surface temperature, total precipitable water, dew point and vapour saturation deficit. A discriminant analysis correctly classified 100% of the areas predicted to be above or below the economic threshold of 2500 mosquitoes per night of capture, respectively. Components of the NDVI, the total precipitable water and the dew point temperature contributed most to the function value. The results suggest that environmental data derived from AVHRR-NOAA could be useful for rapidly identifying adequate areas for mosquito development or activity.

Dans la région méditerranéenne, une composante importante des habitats aquatiques est constituée par les zones humides stagnantestemporaires. Ces milieux ont des usages multiples (chasse, agriculture, protection des oiseaux), mais sont en contre partieliés à une nuisance forte : le développement de moustiques, du genre Aedes, en particulier.L'objet de cet article est la mise en évidence d'une relation existant entre les caractéristiques des habitats (aux échelles macroet micro-géographique) et la distribution spatiale des pontes d'Aedes caspius.Les groupements végétaux, par l'intermédiaire des espèces discriminantes, permettent de localiser avec précision les différentsniveaux de fertilité des aires de pontes des Aèdes caspius. Les variables explicatives humidité, texture, oxydes ferriques sont traduites d'une manière pertinente par la végétation, cette dernière pouvant être appréhendée de manière opérationnelle par l'utilisation des niveaux écologiques "outils techniques et opérationnels" de l'Entente Interdépartementale pour la Démoustication du littoral Méditerranéen (EIDM).

Les effets de trois métaux lourds (Cu, Hg, Cd) sur le développement d'Anopheles hispaniola, vecteur potentiel du paludisme, de Culex pipiens et Culex hortensis ont été étudiés dans l'oued N'fis près de la station Agadir Tachraft, dans les bassins expérimentaux de traitement des eaux usées de Marrakech (Maroc) et dans un bassin d'élevage des grenouilles. Les effets varient selon l'espèce, en fonction du développement et selon la nature et la dose du métal. A. hispaniola au stade L4 se montre le plus sensible aux trois métaux Cu, Hg, Cd. La CL50 (24h) est respectivement de 3,78, 1,52 et 4,81 mg.L-1, plus faible que celle de C. hortensis (5,02 , 3,1 et 9,91 mg.L-1) et de C. pipiens (5,91, 4,43 et 17,48 mg.L-1). Par contre, la sensibilité au Cd ne diffère pas significativement chez A. hispaniola et C. hortensis au stade L2 selon le test de Newman - Keuls. Cette étude montre qu'A. hispaniola qui a un cycle de vie relativement court et qui est facile à élever au laboratoire, présente une sensibilité 2 fois plus élevée pour le Hg, 3,4 fois plus élevée pour le Cd et 8,6 fois plus importante pour le Cu que Aedes aegypti. Cette dernière est proposée comme espèce-test pour les mêmes propriétés pour étudier les effets biologiques des métaux lourds sur les insectes aquatiques.

Le complexe d'espèces jumelles mariae se développe dans les creux de rocher (rock pools) contenant de l'eau de mer. L'espèceAedes mariae Sergent & Sergent, 1903 se rencontre sur le pourtour du bassin tyrrhénien et notamment sur la côte rocheuse del'ouest algérien. Le suivi durant une année de la dynamique de la population a permis de démontrer que le cycle biologique estsensiblement différent de celui observé en Méditerranée septentrionale. La présence de femelles actives aux mois de janvier etfévrier et d'un stock réduit d'oeufs dans les gîtes, montrent que la population d'Ae. mariae des côtes occidentales algériennesadopte une double stratégie de développement. Les éclosions les plus importantes sont enregistrées lorsque la conductivité estcomprise entre 52.000 et 75.000 µS.m-1 résultant d'un apport d'eau de mer et de la concentration en sels sous l'effet de l'évaporation.Les conductivités supérieures à 100.000 µS.m-1, entravent l'éclosion des oeufs en favorisant la dessiccation biologique.

Dans ce travail, la lutte chimique anti-larvaire a été réalisée au laboratoire chez deux espèces culicidiennes Anopheles hispaniola,vecteur potentiel du paludisme (Guy 1963), et Culex pipiens. Dans ces essais, nous avons utilisé le téméphos, larvicide organophosphoré,sous forme liquide 500 EC (Concentration Emultionnable). Dans ces conditions, un litre de produit commercialcontient 500 g de produit actif (500 g.l-1).Cette étude a montré que la CL50 (30mn) pour le stade L2 est de 21 µg.l-1 chez A.hispaniola et de 10 µg.l-1 chez C. pipiens ;La CL50 (60mn) au stade L4 est respectivement de 23 µg.l-1 et 12 µg.l-1.Le taux de consommation des larves d'A.hispaniola (stade L4) par Gambusia affinis varie en fonction des milieux étudiés maisreste toujours plus élevé chez les femelles que chez les mâles.

Les conditions de sécheresse qui ont sévi au Maroc de 1981 à 1983 ont favorisé la sélection d'un nouvel habitat par Culex pipiens, espèce particulièrement plastique, le creux d'arbre en subéraie. La description morphologique de la larve du stade 4, de la nymphe et des imagos ♂ et ♀ montre que ces populations dendrolimniques s'apparentent à la forme Culex pipiens autogenicus.

A large pond, up to 2000 m2 area, adjacent to the sea at Jimbo, near Vanga, on the south coast of Kenya was studied for salinity and the presence of mosquito larvae 1980–1981. Rainfall peaked in November–December 1980 and again in March–May 1981, while salinity of the pond-water fluctuated inversely from dryness in February, more than 100% seawater equivalent in months before main rains, to below 13% seawater after the onset of rain in March.

Five types of mosquito larvae occurred in the pond: Aedes albocephalus mostly at 21–30% salinity (range 13–30%); Culex sitiens mostly at 31–40% salinity (range 13–54%); Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex thalassius mostly at 41–50% salinity (range 13–50%) and the Anopheles gambiae complex from 13 to 54% salinity, at least those at higher salinities being Anopheles merus. No larvae were present when salinity surpassed 54% through evaporation, or fell below 13% after rain. The most reliable way to limit or control these pest and vector mosquitoes at Jimbo would be to drain the pond into the sea after rainfall, so that mosquito populations could not increase by breeding sequentially, while salination proceeds.