Thrombocytopenia is a common symptom and one of the warning signs of dengue virus (DENV) infection. Platelet depletion is critical as it may lead to other severe dengue symptoms. Understanding the molecular events of this condition during dengue infection is challenging because of the multifaceted factors involved in DENV infection and the dynamics of the disease progression. Platelet levels depend on the balance between platelet production and platelet consumption or clearance. Megakaryopoiesis and thrombopoiesis, two interdependent processes in platelet production, are hampered during dengue infection. Conversely, platelet elimination via platelet activation, apoptosis and clearance processes are elevated. Together, these anomalies contribute to thrombocytopenia in dengue patients. Targeting the molecular events of dengue-mediated thrombocytopenia shows great potential but still requires further investigation. Nonetheless, the application of new knowledge in this field, such as immature platelet fraction analysis, may facilitate physicians in monitoring the progression of the disease.

The protein composition in goat milk undergoes changes throughout the different lactation periods, displaying distinct characteristics that are influenced by the dynamic nature of protein composition and concentration during the transition from colostrum secretion to mature milk. To evaluate the dynamics of whey proteins of Saanen goats during the colostral phase and the first month of lactation, 110 milk samples from 11 healthy mammary halves of seven Saanen goats were selected through a clinical evaluation. Whey was obtained by rennet coagulation of the mammary secretion. The biuret method determined total protein concentration, and their fractions were identified by 12% dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Maximum concentrations of all protein fractions were observed in the first 12 h of lactation, reducing throughout the study. Modification of the protein predominance was also observed. The transition from colostrum secretion to milk occurred 5 or 7 d postpartum.

While tetanus toxoid vaccination has reduced the incidence of tetanus in the developed world, this disease remains a substantial health problem in developing nations. Tetanus immune globulin (TIG) is used along with vaccination for prevention of infection after major or contaminated wounds if vaccination status cannot be verified or for active tetanus infection. These studies describe the characterisation of a TIG produced by a caprylate/chromatography process. The TIG potency and presence of plasma protein impurities were analysed at early/late steps in the manufacturing process by chromatography, immunoassay, coagulation and potency tests. The caprylate/chromatography process has been previously shown to effectively eliminate or inactivate potentially transmissible agents from plasma-derived products. In this study, the caprylate/chromatography process was shown to effectively concentrate TIG activity and efficiently remove pro-coagulation factors, naturally present in plasma. This TIG drug product builds on the long-term evidence of the safety and efficacy of TIG by providing a product with higher purity and low pro-coagulant protein impurities.

Colostrum quality is of paramount importance in the management of optimal ruminant growth and infectious disease prevention in early life. Live yeast supplementation effect during the last month of gestation was evaluated on ewes’ colostrum composition. Two groups of ewes (n = 14) carrying twin lambs were constituted and twins were separated into groups (mothered or artificially fed) 12 h after birth. Nutrient, oligosaccharides (OS), IgG and lactoferrin concentrations were measured over 72 h after lambing, and bacterial community was described in colostrum collected at parturition (T0). Immune passive transfer was evaluated through IgG measurement in lamb serum. In both groups, colostral nutrient, OS concentrations and IgG concentrations in colostrum and lamb serum decreased over time (P < 0⋅01), except for lactose, which slightly increased (P < 0⋅001), and lactoferrin, which remained stable. Bacterial population was stable over time with high relative abundances of Aerococcaceae, Corynebacteriaceae, Moraxellaceae and Staphylococcaceae in T0 colostrum. No effect of supplementation was observed in nutrient and lactoferrin concentrations. In supplemented ewes, the level of colostral IgG was higher at T0 and a higher level of serum IgG was observed in lambs born from supplemented mothers and artificially fed, while no effect of supplementation was observed in the mothered lamb groups. Using a metabolomic approach, we showed that supplementation affected OS composition with significantly higher levels of colostral Neu-5Gc compounds up to 5 h after birth. No effect of supplementation was observed on bacterial composition. Our data suggest that live yeast supplementation offsets the negative impact of early separation and incomplete colostrum feeding in neonate lambs.

In this study it is hypothesized that there are differences between immunoglobulin G (IgG) content in colostrum from beef (Chianina, Podolica) and dairy (Holstein Friesian) cows and that variables such as breed, and parity can influence IgG content. The further objective was to determine if these factors may vary in terms of sensitivity, specificity and the cut point when data obtained with the digital Brix refractometer is compared with the gold standard radial immunodiffusion assay (RID). A total of 90 samples of first-milking colostrum were collected within 2 h after parturition. IgG concentration was determined indirectly by digital Brix refractometer and directly by RID. Results obtained by RID were compared among breed and parity. For the digital Brix refractometer, sensitivity and specificity to detect colostrum with an IgG concentration lower than 50 g/l were calculated and the optimal cut-point was selected for each breed. Samples containing less than <50 g/l IgG accounted for 15.9% of the total. Parity influenced colostral IgG concentration and beef cows had a higher mean concentration of IgG (101.1 g/l in Chianina and 90.6 g/l in Podolica) than dairy cows (71.1 g/l in Holstein Friesian) First parity Chianina cows had the highest IgG mean content (116.1 g/l). At the optimal cut-point for Brix refractometer (20%) sensitivity and specificity were 0.93 (0.84–0.97) and 0.81 (0.70–0.88), however, a breed-related cut-point could be used to reduce evaluation error. Linear regression modeling showed that refractometer data were related to RID (r = 0.78). Results obtained suggest that breed and parity can influence IgG content of colostrum and, despite the Brix refractometer being an excellent on-farm tool, a breed-based definition of optimal cut point is needed.

Colostrum plays an essential role in ensuring the survival, growth and health of piglets by providing energy, nutrients, immunoglobulins, growth factors and many other bioactive components and cells. Both colostrum yield and composition are highly variable among sows, yet mechanisms and factors that regulate colostrogenesis are not fully known. Unlike sow milk yield, sow colostrum yield is not highly determined by litter size and suckling intensity but is largely driven by sow-related factors. Colostrum synthesis is under hormonal control, with prolactin and progesterone concentrations prepartum having, respectively, positive and negative influences on colostrum yield. Less is known about the endocrine control of the end of colostrogenesis in swine, which is characterized by the closure of tight junctions in the mammary epithelium and the cessation of transfer of immunoglobulin G (IgG) into lacteal secretions. Recent studies indicate that exogenous hormones may influence colostrogenesis. Inducing parturition by injecting prostaglandin F2α on day 114 of gestation in combination with an oxytocin-like molecule reduced colostrum yield, and injection of prostaglandin F2α alone either reduced colostrum yield or had no effect. Injecting a supraphysiological dose of oxytocin to sows in the early postpartum period delayed the tightening of mammary tight junctions, thereby prolonging the colostral phase and increasing concentrations of IGF-I and IgG and IgA in early milk. The development of strategies to improve colostrum composition in swine through maternal feeding has been largely explored but very few attempts were made to increase colostrum yield. This is most likely because of the difficulty in measuring colostrum yield in swine. The fatty acid content of colostrum greatly depends on the amount of lipids provided in the sow diet during late gestation, whereas the fatty acid profile is largely influenced by the type of lipid being fed to the pregnant sow. Moreover, various ingredients that presumably have immuno-modulating effects (such as fish oil, prebiotics and probiotics) increased concentrations of IgG, IgA and/or IgM in sow colostrum when they were provided during the last weeks of gestation. Finally, there is some evidence that sow nutrition during late gestation may influence colostrum yield but this clearly warrants more research. This review emphasizes that although progress has been made in understanding the control of colostrogenesis in swine, and that strategies exist to manipulate fat and immunoglobulin contents of colostrum, ways to increase colostrum yield are still lacking.

Failed transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) in dairy calves – which is often due to the low amount of colostrum provided within a few hours after birth – remains a crucial issue. Enabling dairy calves to nurse colostrum from their dams could be useful in increasing intake and thus avoiding FTPI, but further potential effects on the health and welfare of both calves and dams should also be considered. In this study, 107 calf-dam pairs from two Italian dairy farms were alternately assigned to one of the following colostrum provision methods (CPMs): ‘hand-fed method’ (HFM) – the calf was separated from the dam immediately after birth and colostrum was provided by nipple-bottle (n = 50); ‘nursing method’ (NM) – the calf nursed colostrum from the dam for the first 12 h of life without farmer assistance (n = 30); and ‘mixed method’ (MM) – the nursing calf received a supplementary colostrum meal by nipple-bottle (n = 27). Serum of calves (1 to 5 days of age) and samples of their first colostrum meal were analysed by electrophoresis to assess immunoglobulin (Ig) concentration. Additionally, behavioural indicators of separation distress (calf and dam vocalisations; calf refusal of the first meal after separation; undesirable dam behaviour at milking) in the following 24 h were recorded as binary variables (Yes/No), and the health status of calves (disease occurrence and mortality) and dams (postpartum disorders and mastitis occurrence) were monitored for the first 3 months of life and 7 days after parturition, respectively. The lowest FTPI occurrence (calf serum Ig concentration <10.0 g/l) was found in the MM (11.1%) and the HFM (22.0%) compared with the NM (60.0%) (P<0.05), and the highest percentage of calves with optimal transfer of passive immunity (serum Ig concentration ≥16.0 g/l) was observed in the MM (55.6%). The lowest calf–dam separation distress was observed in the HFM (P<0.05). The highest calf disease occurrence was recorded in the HFM (64.0%) and the lowest in the NM (33.3%), with an intermediate value for the MM (44.4%) (P<0.05). No effect of the CPM was observed on dam health or calf mortality (P>0.05). The results of this study indicated that providing calves with a supplementary colostrum meal in addition to nursing from the dam (MM) is truly effective in maximizing passive immunity transfer. Anyway, specific strategies should be studied to minimise calf-dam separation distress.

The bovine whey consists of more than 200 different types of proteins, of which β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, serum albumin, immunoglobulins and lactoferrin predominate. However, their concentrations are not stable due to the existence of protein dynamics during a transition from colostrum secretion to mature milk. To evaluate the dynamics of whey proteins of Jersey cows during a colostral phase and first month of lactation and an influence of the number of lactations, 268 milk samples from 135 Jersey cows were selected through a clinical evaluation. Whey was obtained by rennet coagulation of the mammary secretion. The concentration of total proteins was determined by the biuret method and their fractions were identified by 12% dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (12% SDS-PAGE). Maximum concentrations of all protein fractions were observed in the first 12 h of lactation, reducing over the course of the study. Modification of the protein predominance was also observed. The transition from colostrum secretion to milk occurred between 24 and 72 h postpartum. There was an influence of the number of lactations on the dynamics of whey proteins, indicating that multiparous cows had better immunological and nutritional quality when compared to primiparous cows.

The process of agglutination causes firm cream layers in bovine milk, and a functioning agglutination mechanism is paramount to the quality of non-homogenized milks. The phenomenon is not well-described, but it is believed to occur due to interactions between immunoglobulins (Ig) and milk fat globules. For the first time, this paper demonstrates how the process of agglutination can be visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy, rhodamine red and a fluoresceinisothiocynat-conjugated immunoglobulin M antibody. The method was used to illustrate the effect on agglutination of storage temperature and pasteurization temperature. Storage at 5 °C resulted in clearly visible agglutination which, however, was markedly reduced at 15 °C. Increasing storage temperature to 20 or 37 °C cancelled any detectable interaction between IgM and milk fat globules, whereby the occurrence of cold agglutination was documented. Increasing 20 s pasteurization temperatures from 69 °C to 71 °C and further to 73 °C lead to progressively higher inactivation of IgM and, hence, reduction of agglutination. Furthermore, 2-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that changes in storage temperature caused a redistribution of Ig-related proteins in milk fat globule membrane isolates. Poly-immunoglobulin G receptor was present in milk fat globule preparations stored at cold (4 °C) conditions, but absent at storage at higher temperature (25 °C). The findings provide valuable knowledge to dairy producers of non-homogenized milk in deciding the right pasteurization temperature to retain the crucial agglutination mechanism.

Immunity-related traits are heritable in chicken, therefore, it is possible to improve the inherent immunity by breeding programs. In this study using the Illumina chicken 60K single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) chip, we performed a set of genome-wide association studies to determine candidate genes and loci responsible for primary and secondary antibody-mediated responses against sheep red blood cell. A F2 population descended from a commercial meat-type breed and an Iranian indigenous chicken was used for this study. Statistical analysis was based on a mixed linear model utilizing genomic relationship matrix to prevent spurious associations. Correction for multiple testing was done by applying 5% and 10% chromosomal false discovery rates (FDRs) for significant and suggestive thresholds, respectively. Nine significant and 17 suggestive associated SNPs were identified. Most of the SNPs that were suggestively associated with the primary response of total plasma immunoglobulins were also significantly associated with this trait in secondary response. Three SNPs were located within a narrow region of 23 kb on chromosome 16. Pathway analysis for the genes surrounding the associated SNPs showed that they are involve in antigen processing and presentation, primary immunodeficiency, vitamin digestion and absorption, cell adhesion molecules, phagosome, influenza A, folding, assembly and peptide loading of class I major histocompatibility complex, lipid digestion, mobilization, and transport (FDR < 0.1). Interestingly, there were common regains associated with multiple immune-related traits.

l-theanine is a unique nonproteinogenic amino acid found in tea, and has recently received considerable attention because of its various biological activities. However, there is no available research report on the use of l-theanine as a feed additive in ducks. This study was conducted to investigate the potential benefits and appropriate dosages of l-theanine on the growth performance, immune function, serum biochemical parameters, and jejunum morphology and antioxidant capacity of ducks. A total of 600 1-day-old Chaohu ducks were randomly allocated into five dietary treatment groups supplemented with 0 (control group), 300, 600, 900 and 1500 mg/kg of l-theanine. Each group included five replicates of 24 birds each. Body weight at day 28 was increased (P<0.05) by l-theanine. From days 15 to 28, l-theanine elevated cumulative BW gain (BWG) and cumulative feed intake (FI), and decreased feed to gain ratio. From days 1 to 28, l-theanine elevated (P<0.05) cumulative BWG and cumulative FI. l-theanine elevated (P<0.05) the relative weight of bursa of Fabricus (day 14), thymus (day 14), spleen (day 28) and liver (day 28). On day 28, l-theanine decreased (P<0.05) serum glucose, uric acid, triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, insulin, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-6 contents, and elevated (P<0.05) serum total protein, globulin (GLB), immune globulin A (IgA) and IgG contents, but only serum insulin, interferon-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-6 contents was decreased (P<0.05) and serum GLB and IgM content was elevated (P<0.05) by l-theanine on day 14. On day 14, l-theanine decreased (P<0.05) jejunum crypt depth, and elevated (P<0.05) jejunum villus height, villus height to crypt depth ratio (V/C), goblet cell number and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity. On day 28, l-theanine decreased (P<0.05) jejunum malondialdehyde content, and elevated (P<0.05) jejunum villus height, V/C, goblet cell number, and T-SOD, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities. l-theanine levels caused quadratic effect on the growth performance, relative organ weight, serum parameters, jejunum morphology and antioxidant capacity. In conclusion, l-theanine can be used as a promising feed additive for ducks, and its optimal supplementation level was 600 to 900 mg/kg based on the current experimental condition.

Antibodies at gastrointestinal mucosal membranes play a vital role in immunological protection against a range of pathogens, including helminths. Gastrointestinal health is central to efficient livestock production, and such infections cause significant losses. Fecal samples were taken from 114 cattle, across three beef farms, with matched blood samples taken from 22 of those animals. To achieve fecal antibody detection, a novel fecal supernatant was extracted. Fecal supernatant and serum samples were then analysed, using adapted enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay protocols, for levels of total immunoglobulin (Ig)A, IgG, IgM, and Teladorsagia circumcincta-specific IgA, IgG, IgM and IgE (in the absence of reagents for cattle-specific nematode species). Fecal nematode egg counts were conducted on all fecal samples. Assays performed successfully and showed that IgA was the predominant antibody in fecal samples, whereas IgG was predominant in serum. Total IgA in feces and serum correlated within individuals (0.581, P = 0.005), but other Ig types did not. Results support the hypothesis that the tested protocols are an effective method for the non-invasive assessment of cattle immunology. The method could be used as part of animal health assessments, although further work is required to interpret the relationship between results and levels of infection and immunity.

Background: The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of Gamunex® (immune globulin [human] 10%; hereinafter “Gamunex”) when administered intravenously in the initial treatment of Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). The study was conducted as a postapproval commitment for Health Canada. Methods: A medical chart review for hospitalized patients diagnosed with GBS and treated with Gamunex (Gamunex 10% and IGIVnex® 10%; N=109; n=69 evaluable) was conducted at seven Canadian study centers in reverse chronological order. The primary endpoint for assessing effectiveness was the proportion of patients with treatment success compared with a prospectively defined historical effectiveness threshold for plasma exchange (PE) treatment (55.05%). Treatment success was assessed as ≥1 point improvement from baseline on the GBS Disability Scale or abbreviated GBS Disability Scale. Cases were not evaluable if treatment success, relapse, or treatment failure could not be determined by the available chart data. Results: Applying a conservative estimate with all nonevaluable patients (n= 40) classified as treatment failures, Gamunex treatment success was estimated at 57.8% (63 of 109 patients), which exceeded the predefined historical PE effectiveness threshold. In the evaluable population of this study, Gamunex treatment was successful in 91.3% of patients (63/69). Some 23 (21.1%) of 109 Gamunex-treated patients experienced ≥1 adverse event; the profile and frequency were consistent with the adverse events reported for Gamunex in the product’s labeling and with the natural clinical course of GBS. Conclusions: The effectiveness of Gamunex for treatment of GBS was comparable to PE therapy. Gamunex was observed to have an acceptable safety profile in this study population.

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of a high concentration of vitamin E supplementation in sow diet during the last week of gestation and lactation on the performance, milk composition, and vital immunological variables and antioxidative parameters in sows and piglets. The experiment started on day 107 of gestation and lasted until the piglets were weaned on day 21 of lactation. 48 sows were divided into two groups and fed either a basal diet with 44 IU/kg of vitamin E or a basal diet supplemented with additional vitamin E, total content of 250 IU/kg. Sow milk and blood samples were obtained on day 0 (farrowing) and on day 21 of lactation. One 21-day-old piglet per litter was selected to collect plasma. Results showed that supplementation of the maternal diet with 250 IU/kg vitamin E improved the average daily gain (ADG) and weaning weight of piglets (P < 0·05), and the concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in sow plasma, colostrum and milk. The concentrations of fat in the colostrum and milk were significantly increased by supplementation with 250 IU/kg of vitamin E (P < 0·05). The level of plasma IgG, IgA, total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and catalase (CAT) were all higher (P < 0·05) in piglets from sows that were fed 250 IU/kg of vitamin E than in those from the control group. The high concentration of vitamin E supplementation to the sows enhanced the concentrations of α-tocopherol in the sow milk and plasma as well as piglet plasma (P < 0·05). In conclusion, the addition to the maternal diet of vitamin E at high concentration improved the weight of piglets at weaning, and enhanced humoral immune function and antioxidant activity in sows and piglets.

This study aimed at comparing data obtained from Azawak zebu colostrum with literature data. The comparison was performed by a meta-analytical approach. Colostrum samples were hand-collected after 5 h from seven Azawak cows at calving between August 27 and September 10, 2009 in the Sahel. For data from literature, 21 references were identified in the following analytical databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Google scholar, Collection from University of Liege. The references were selected according to the following two criteria: (i) only studies reported on bovine colostrum were used irrespective of breeds, and (ii) among the selected studies, those not providing complete information to allow meta-analytical calculation were excluded. Samples were analysed for immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM and IgA), lactoferrin and chemical composition (dry mater, protein, fat, lactose, ash, Ca, P, NA, K and Mg). The mean levels of IgG, IgM, dry matter, protein and fat for Azawak cows were lower (P < 0.001) than those obtained in other breeds; however, colostrum from the Azawak was higher in IgA but the difference was not significant. For lactose and ash, mean values for Azawak cows were higher (P < 0.001) than those from the literature. Contents of Ca, P, Na and Mg in Azawak bovine colostrum were significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the mean levels in form the literature data. In conclusion, the colostrum from Azawak cows appears to be lower in most immunoglobulins, in fat and in protein than the values reported in the literature, but higher in lactose and minerals. This could be an adaptation to Sahelian constraints.

In the present study, we analyse the effect of glycosylation in Echinostoma caproni (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) antigens in antibody responses against the parasite in experimentally infected mice. It has been previously demonstrated that the mouse is a host of high compatibility with E. caproni and develops elevated responses of IgG, IgG1, IgG3 and IgM as a consequence of the infection, though the role of glycans in these responses remains unknown. To this purpose, the responses generated in mice against non-treated excretory/secretory antigens of E. caproni were compared with those observed after N-deglycosylation, O-deglycosylation and double deglycosylation of the antigens by indirect ELISA and western blot. Our results suggest that E. caproni-expressed glycans play a major role in the modulation of the immune responses. The results obtained indicate that IgG subclass responses generated in mice against E. caproni are essentially due to glycoproteins and may affect the Th1/Th2 biasing. The reactivity significantly decreased after any of the deglycosylation treatments and the N-glycans appears to be of greater importance than O-glycans. Interestingly, the IgM response increased after N-deglycosylation suggesting that carbohydrates may mask peptide antigens.

The lack of an adequate model for Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis infection is a limiting factor for studying American tegumentary leishmaniasis (ATL). The golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) is a promising model because besides being highly susceptible to dermotropic Leishmania infection, the lesions are very similar to cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in humans. However, different Leishmania isolates or species and/or protocols have resulted in different outcomes, whereas no study has evaluated the reproducibility of L. braziliensis infection in this model. The natural history of L. braziliensis infection in 34 hamsters was evaluated by using a single parasite isolate in 8 independent experiments under similar experimental conditions. Clinical, histological and immunological analyses were performed. The hamsters presented skin ulcers similar to those observed in ATL. The intra-experiment lesion increment tended to show an intermediary variance. Histological analysis of infected skins showed granulomatous reaction, scarce amastigotes, and Schaumann's bodies. Blood lymphocytes proliferated in response to leishmanial antigens. The severity of the infection was positively correlated to spleen weight, and the titres of anti-Leishmania IgG antibodies. Our findings indicate that the hamster is an appropriate model for immunopathogenesis studies of CL caused by L. braziliensis, supporting its use in clinical, vaccine and chemotherapy experimental protocols.