International organizations come in many shapes and sizes. Within this institutional gamut, the multipurpose multilateral intergovernmental organization (MMIGO) plays a central role. This institutional form is often traced to the creation of the League of Nations, but in fact the first MMIGO emerged in the Western Hemisphere at the close of the nineteenth century. Originally modeled on a single-issue European public international union, the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics evolved into the multipurpose, multilateral Pan American Union (PAU). Contrary to prominent explanations of institutional genesis, the PAU's design did not result from functional needs nor from the blueprints of a hegemonic power. Advancing a recent synthesis between historical and rational institutionalism, we argue that the first MMIGO arose through a process of compensatory layering: a mechanism whereby a sequence of bargains over control and scope leads to gradual but transformative institutional change. We expect compensatory layering to occur when an organization is focal, power asymmetries among members of that organization are large, and preferences over institutional design diverge. Our empirical and theoretical contributions demonstrate the value a more global international relations (IR) perspective can bring to the study of institutional design. international relations (IR) scholars have long noted that international organizations provide smaller states with voice opportunities; our account suggests those spaces may be of smaller states’ own making.

Elizabeth LeCompte co-founded The Wooster Group with like-minded pioneers in New York in 1975, leading and directing its collaborators as deaths, departures, and new arrivals have changed its composition and emphases over the decades, segueing into a world-wide uncertain present. Kate Valk joined in 1978, the last representative of The Wooster Group’s foundational period, apart from LeCompte herself, who is still a key member of the company. References in this conversation are primarily to works after 2016. LeCompte briefly remarks on the importance of Since I Can Remember – one of the Group’s ongoing works in progress in 2021 – as an archival project that draws on Valk’s memory of how Nayatt School was made during her formative years. Having become, since then, a quintessential Wooster Group performer, Valk extended her artistic skills to stage direction, undertaking, most recently, The B-Side (2017). Both the initiative and idea for the piece came from performer Eric Berryman, who had brought Valk the collection of blues, songs, spirituals, and preachings on the 1965 LP made from the research of scholar folklorist Bruce Chapman. Berryman had been inspired to approach Valk because of her exclusive use of unadulterated historical recordings in Early Shaker Spirituals (2014), her directorial debut. The main work in rehearsal during 2020 and which was still locked down by the Covid-19 pandemic at the time of this conversation is The Mother, a Wooster Group variant of Brecht’s dramatized version of Gorky’s novel, directed by LeCompte. LeCompte discusses the current situation, emphasizing the increased vulnerability of independent artists and small-scale theatre, while giving a glimpse of the disadvantages for such groupings built into the North American system of project funding. The Wooster Group is a salient example of small-scale theatre that, despite continually precarious conditions, which the pandemic has highlighted and exacerbated, has achieved its creative goals and has defined its place in the exploratory avant-garde flourishing vigorously in the 1960s and 1970s. This particular avant-garde, LeCompte believes, has seen various important developments over the years but might well now be counting its last days. The conversation here presented was recorded on 31 October 2020, transcribed by Kunsang Kelden, and edited by Maria Shevtsova, Editor of New Theatre Quarterly.

After World War II, the US-led international security order exhibited substantial regional variation. Explaining this variation has been central to the debate over why is there no nato in Asia. But this debate overlooks the emergence of multilateral security arrangements between the United States and Latin American countries during the same critical juncture. These inter-American institutions are puzzling considering the three factors most commonly used to explain divergence between nato and Asia: burden-sharing, external threats, and collective identity. These conditions fail to explain contemporaneous emergence of inter-American security multilateralism. Although the postwar inter-American system has been characterized as the solidification of US dominance, at the time of its framing, Latin American leaders judged the inter-American system as their best bet for maintaining beneficial US involvement in the Western Hemisphere while reinforcing voice opportunities for weaker states and imposing institutional constraints on US unilateralism. Drawing on multinational archival research, the author advances a historical institutionalist account. Shared historical antecedents of regionalism shaped the range of choices for Latin American and US leaders regarding the desirability and nature of new regional institutions while facilitating institutional change through mechanisms of layering and conversion during this critical juncture.

The gabbro-anorthosite complex of SW Angola and Namibia (Kunene Complex) is dominated by anorthosite-troctolite cumulates. Other broadly gabbroic rock types are subordinate. An-rich plagioclase (max. An85) and Fo-rich olivine (max. Fo79) are common in the western area of the complex with plagioclase becoming gradually less anorthitic (min. An45) and olivine less forsteritic (min. Fo62) toward the east. This cryptic change is more pronounced in the northern half of the complex where rocks are darker, fresh, and the rhythmic layering is also more conspicuous. Within the white 'massive' anorthosite type, which is largely restricted to the southern half of the intrusion, cryptic layering is less pronounced. Textures indicate that rocks cooled very slowly and the co-existing mineral compositions indicate re-equilibration to usually low temperatures.

The major Old English adjective of certainty was (ge)wiss, which in early Middle English came to be replaced with sicker derived from very weakly attested Old English sicor, a word of ultimate Romance origin (from Latin sēcūrus). The relative paucity of occurrences of both adjectives in the Dictionary of Old English corpus is attributed to their use in mostly spoken language. The rapid increase in the usage of sicker in the thirteenth century is a mystery with possible, yet difficult to prove, Norse and/or Anglo-Norman influence. The fourteenth century marks the appearance of sure and certain borrowed from Anglo-Norman first by bilingual speakers and writers, and the quick diffusion of the new lexemes to all dialects and genres. This article looks at the adoption of the different senses of these polysemous adjectives into Middle English in the context of subjectification, which appears to affect not only semantic developments within one language but also the process of borrowing. When sure and certain were used epistemically, they tended to occur in the predicative position, usually following the copula. It took several centuries of lexical layering (coexistence of synonyms) before sicker was lost from Standard English in the sixteenth century.

This introductory article offers an analytical framework to understand the limits of approaches that stress the diffusion and transfers of international norms within the field of disability policy over the last three decades. It also aims to provide alternative ways to frame some of the important changes that have occurred through the concept of layering, in order to better account for the intricate processes of national translation but also for the contradictions, conflicts, and obstacles that the promotion of disability rights have faced in different countries. Finally, this article serves to introduce the contributions that make up the themed section in this issue of Social Policy and Society.

In France, public policies in the field of disability was transformed by the law in 11 February 2005 on ‘Equal Rights and Opportunities, Participation, and Citizenship of People with Disabilities’. The law was framed as the introduction in France of the international ‘social model of disability’, in order to combat discrimination. Yet international references in parliamentary debates leading to the adoption of this law were all but absent. How do we explain this paradox? This article aims to answer this question by showing how the newly introduced measures reflected the needs of different stakeholders involved in this public policy to maintain their positions and reform their mutual agreements. This transfer was not characterised by a thorough rethinking of the public policy subsystem, but rather resulted in layering of new rights on top of old frameworks. How then did the organisations promoting these measures manage to implement public policies despite clear contradictions between old and new goals? This article suggests that the organisational regulation of political conflict (conflict avoidance and circumvention of obstacles) and the safeguarding of embedded interests (by limiting possibilities for compromise and administrative obstruction of legal disputes) played a decisive role in this process.

The United States has been a leader in the creation of disability rights law, providing a policy template for other nations. Yet the social model, the animating philosophy behind the disability rights movement, has had little effect on the wide range of welfare programs that serve people with disabilities. These programs, whose creation preceded the modern disability rights movement, reflect a medical model of disability that is at odds with the social model. Analysing the Americans with Disabilities Act (which embodies the social model) and Social Security Disability Insurance (the largest welfare program for people with disabilities), we explore how and why this layering of contradictory disability rights and welfare programs developed and how it has been maintained. We argue that the tension between these policies engendered a series of patches, or ‘kludges’, that allow the policies to coexist without meaningful synthesis. We contend that the United States is particularly prone to this layering of ‘tense policies’, but that it is likely characteristic of disability policy in many nations. Finally we argue that accurate benchmarking of disability rights regimes across nations requires analysts to dig through all the layers of disability policy.

The main interest in studying monodominant forests in the tropics (i.e. single-dominant forest sensu Richards 1996 and Connell & Lowman 1989) is that processes leading to monodominance may highlight mechanisms controlling species diversity (Hart et al. 1989). Among the various cases of monodominant forest (Hart 1990), the most intriguing are the rare ones that stand in contact with a considerably more diverse forest, without apparent environmental boundaries, and for many generations (i.e. type I sensu Connell & Lowman 1989). Rather than a single mechanism, it is likely that this type of monodominance results from a suite of interacting traits (Torti et al. 2001). This has been well illustrated for the neotropical tree Dicymbe corymbosa whose monodominance relies on: (1) ectomycorrhizal symbiosis (Henkel et al. 2002) linked to (2) mast fruiting (Henkel et al. 2005), (3) high seedling survival rate (Henkel et al. 2005, McGuire 2007a, 2007b) and, potentially, (4) slow litter decomposition (Mayor & Henkel 2006, McGuire et al. 2010), moreover, (5) the reiterative habit of D. corymbosa slows the gap dynamics, and reduces species richness (Woolley et al. 2008). Thus, a comprehensive understanding of monodominance may only emerge from the comparison of many case studies to point out shared mechanisms. Here, we report a new case of a monodominant species: Spirotropis longifolia (DC.) Baill.

Introduction. Le drageonnage et le marcottage aérien de trois fruitiers à usages multiples, Balanites aegyptiaca, Diospyros mespiliformis et Sclerocarya birrea, ont été étudiés dans le secteur climatique sahélo-soudanien à Kéring en vue de contribuer à la régénération à faible coût de ces espèces surexploitées. Matériel et méthodes. Dans trois stations représentatives de cette localité (jardins de case, brousse, berges de cours d’eau), un inventaire de 90 arbres par espèce a été réalisé au préalable pour détecter la présence d’éventuels drageons ou marcottes terrestres naturels. Ensuite, les possibilités d’induction de drageons au début de la saison des pluies par blessure ou sectionnement de racines et l’aptitude au marcottage aérien en fin de la saison des pluies ont été testées sur les pieds ciblés. Résultats et discussion L’espèce Sbirrea a présenté une aptitude très élevée pour le drageonnage naturel par rapport aux deux autres espèces. D. mespiliformis a drageonné moyennement alors que B. aegyptiaca, espèce  fourragère très broutée, a montré ici une faible aptitude au drageonnage. L’effet de la station a été significatif; il y a eu une plus forte fréquence de drageons au niveau des berges des cours d’eau. Le marcottage terrestre naturel n’a pas été remarqué sur les 270 arbres observés. L’induction du drageonnage réalisé au début de la saison des pluies par sectionnement complet de racines superficielles a été plus efficace après 9 mois (taux de 57,7 %, toutes espèces confondues) que la méthode d’induction par blessure légère des racines traçantes (37,7 %). L’exposition à la lumière des racines stressées a amplifié le drageonnage. Les drageons induits apparaissent généralement sur la racine stressée, du côté proximal de l’arbre-mère, mais ils peuvent se former aussi du côté distal. Réalisés en fin de saison pluvieuse, les essais de marcottage aérien de B. aegyptiaca ont montré 95 % de marcottes enracinées alors que, à cette saison, les deux autres espèces se sont révélées réfractaires après 5 mois d’observation. Conclusion En dehors des facteurs génétiques, physiologiques et environnementaux qui peuvent influencer la réussite du marcottage aérien ou du drageonnage, S. birrea et D. mespiliformis semblent nettement mieux prédisposées dans l’écosystème du secteur de Kéring à l’induction du drageonnage que B. aegyptiaca, plus apte au marcottage aérien. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles voies à la multiplication de ces trois espèces surexploitées par les populations.

Introduction. Cashew production has been on a decline due to poor yield resulting from poor quality traits of open-pollinated seedling populations that were used to establish plantations. Clones established from outstanding individuals through air-layering root poorly and are not likely to survive transplanting, thus clonal propagation by air-layering has been of little value for cashew propagation. Materials and method. To improve the rooting percentages of air-layering, three auxins (IBA, NAA and IAA) were applied at six concentrations [(0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5)%] on four cashew genotypes. Results and discussion. Significant improvement was recorded in terms of layer take, number of roots per layer, number of days to rooting, length of roots and percentage of surviving clones after transplanting. Improvement varied between the different auxins, concentrations and genotypes. We observed that degree of rooting was genotype-specific and influenced by auxin type and specific concentration. Our data showed that, among the auxins tested, IBA was most effective, with optimum performance at the 2% concentration. Conclusion. Using auxins made it possible to significantly improve the rooting and survival of cashew propagules; however, to achieve sufficient rooting and better establishment after transplanting, auxin treatment should not exceed 3% concentration. This intervention would help alleviate the problem of clonal establishment in cashew.

Many processes in nature and technology are based on the static and dynamic properties of solid–liquid interfaces. Prominent examples are crystal growth, melting, and recrystallization. These processes are strongly affected by the local structure at the solid–liquid interface. Therefore, it is mandatory to understand the change in the structure across the interface. The break of the translational symmetry at the interface induces ordering phenomena, and interactions between the liquid's molecules and the atomically corrugated solid surface may induce additional ordering effects. In the past decade, new techniques have been developed to investigate the structural properties of such (deeply) buried interfaces in their natural environment. These methods are based on deeply penetrating probes such as brilliant x-ray beams, providing full access to the structure parallel and perpendicular to the interface. Here, we review the results of a number of case studies including liquid metals in contact with Group IV elements (diamond and silicon), where charge transfer effects at the interface may come into play. Another particularly important liquid in our environment is water. The structural properties of water vary widely as it is brought in contact with other materials. We will then proceed from these seemingly simple cases to complex fluids such as colloids.

The ultrabasic rocks of the southern portion of the Early Tertiary Cuillin Igneous Complex, Isle of Skye, are recognised as forming a Peridotite Series s.l. and have been separated into six distinct structural–lithological units. These units range from almost pure dunite (Unit 1, at the lowest structural level), through to feldspathic peridotites and allivalites (Units 5 and 6, at the highest structural levels). Detailed field and mineralogical studies indicate that both cumulus and postcumulus processes involving ultrabasic (picritic) magmas may be identified, and that the latter processes have significantly modified many of the primary features of these rocks.

Layering, both modal and phase, is present within all six units, although it is more prominent within the higher units, especially Units 5 and 6. Differing orientations of fabrics defined by cumulus spinel and intercumulus plagioclase layers within Unit 3 indicate the important role of compaction and intercumulus melt migration. Unit 4 is extremely heterogeneous, involving material ranging in composition from peridotite to allivalite, and provides clear evidence for postcumulus melt movement, magma-mixing, disruption and brecciation. Units 5 and 6 developed with a more porous cumulus framework, giving rise to dendritic growths involving cumulus olivine and poikilitic plagioclase.

It is concluded that postcumulus melt movement, injection and magma-mixing, involving ultrabasic magmas, were significant processes in the formation of the ultrabasic rocks of the Cuillin Igneous Complex.

Detailed mapping of the Trallval-Ruinsival area of the ultrabasic complex of Rhum has revealed the relationship between the intrusive peridotites, which form a major part of the complex, and the layered ultrabasic rocks. The layered rocks on Trallval are correlated with Units 8 to 15 of the Eastern Layered Series as seen on Hallival and Askival, and part of an additional unit, Unit 16, has also been identified. The layered rocks of Ruinsival and the western part of Trallval form part of the Central Series and have been subdivided into six cyclic units. They are associated with four sets of intrusive breccia zones which converge towards a central region. Four cylindrical plugs of intrusive peridotite occur within the area of outcrop of the Central Series. Criteria are listed for the distinction of intrusive peridotite from conformable peridotites formed in situ. Distinctive textures and structures are described; these include vertical feldspathic streamers, which are interpreted as direct evidence for the upward expulsion of interstitial fluid, and loading structures at the contact between a peridotite layer and underlying allivalite are ascribed to the intrusion of a peridotite sill. A comparison of the Eastern Layered Series and the Central Series suggests that three stages were involved in the formation of the ultrabasic rocks: (i) the accretion of rhythmically layered unconsolidated olivine cumulates; (ii) the upward expulsion of intercumulus liquid; and (iii) the formation of either allivalite (as in the Eastern Layered Series) or ultrabasic breccia zones (as in the Central Series) from the expelled intercumulus liquid, depending on whether the tectonic environment was quiescent or extensional.