Climate change stands as the paramount challenge confronting humanity in the contemporary era. Attempting to address the problem, the main sectors responsible for it have been subject to domestic or international policies and laws aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, except one: livestock. Given that animal-sourced food production contributes a large portion of GHG emissions, this Article aims to analyze the impacts that the exclusion of the livestock sector, in efforts to tackle climate change, would have on compliance with international treaties on the subject, especially the Paris Agreement. One conclusion reveals that state parties, by ignoring the sector, will violate several articles of the Agreement, which will likely lead to the failure of its main purpose of holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C.

A reduction in the demand for meat and particularly red meat has the potential to significantly enhance the sustainability and health of many people's diets. In the current work, I examine situational predictors of meat consumption in nationally representative nutrition surveys from three Western European countries: Switzerland, France and the Netherlands. More specifically, I examine whether the situational factors – the meal type, the day of the week and the location of the food consumption occasion – are predictive of whether meat and red meat are consumed. The results indicate that all three factors are linked to meat and red meat consumption with the patterns varying substantially across the different case study countries and in some cases also the gender of the consumer. The results emphasise the value of mapping situational correlates to inform situated interventions aimed at influencing meat consumption, while also highlighting important differences across both cultures and people.

The associations of red/processed meat consumption and cancer-related health outcomes have been well discussed. The umbrella review aimed to summarise the associations of red/processed meat consumption and various non-cancer-related outcomes in humans. We systematically searched the systematic reviews and meta-analyses of associations between red/processed meat intake and health outcomes from PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library databases. The umbrella review has been registered in PROSPERO (CRD 42021218568). A total of 40 meta-analyses were included. High consumption of red meat, particularly processed meat, was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality, CVD and metabolic outcomes. Dose–response analysis revealed that an additional 100 g/d red meat intake was positively associated with a 17 % increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), 15 % increased risk of CHD, 14 % of hypertension and 12 % of stroke. The highest dose–response/50 g increase in processed meat consumption at 95 % confident levels was 1·37, 95 % CI (1·22, 1·55) for T2DM, 1·27, 95 % CI (1·09, 1·49) for CHD, 1·17, 95 % CI (1·02, 1·34) for stroke, 1·15, 95 % CI (1·11, 1·19) for all-cause mortality and 1·08, 95 % CI (1·02, 1·14) for heart failure. In addition, red/processed meat intake was associated with several other health-related outcomes. Red and processed meat consumption seems to be more harmful than beneficial to human health in this umbrella review. It is necessary to take the impacts of red/processed meat consumption on non-cancer-related outcomes into consideration when developing new dietary guidelines, which will be of great public health importance. However, more additional randomised controlled trials are warranted to clarify the causality.

Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on the dietary habits of the Japanese population have shown that an effect rs671 allele was inversely associated with fish consumption, whereas it was directly associated with coffee consumption. Although meat is a major source of protein and fat in the diet, whether genetic factors that influence meat-eating habits in healthy populations are unknown. This study aimed to conduct a GWAS to find genetic variations that affect meat consumption in a Japanese population. We analysed GWAS data using 14 076 participants from the Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort (J-MICC) study. We used a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire to estimate food intake that was validated previously. Association of the imputed variants with total meat consumption per 1000 kcal energy was performed by linear regression analysis with adjustments for age, sex, and principal component analysis components 1–10. We found that no genetic variant, including rs671, was associated with meat consumption. The previously reported single nucleotide polymorphisms that were associated with meat consumption in samples of European ancestry could not be replicated in our J-MICC data. In conclusion, significant genetic factors that affect meat consumption were not observed in a Japanese population.

Meat consumption in Germany is presently higher than recommended for a healthy and sustainable nutrition. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore German consumers’ attitudes, perceptions and behaviours regarding meat consumption based on data from 1807 participants (20–80 years) of the NEMONIT study (2012/13). Data were obtained using computer-assisted telephone interviews including 24-h recalls and a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The majority (97 %) of the participants were meat consumers and most of them stated that an ideal meal should contain meat. Their main motives for meat consumption were good taste, usual habit and the perception of meat as a healthy and satiable food. The stated meat consumption frequency was higher than the ‘desired’ consumption frequency, answered in a FFQ. Most participants would agree with two meat meals per week, but only 17 % assumed that the German population would agree. Therefore, framework conditions do not motivate people enough to reduce their meat consumption. Options for action which can be implemented in daily routine are needed. Meat is still a largely appreciated food in Germany, but the results indicate a potential for behavioural changes which must be exploited urgently to reduce meat consumption to a healthy and sustainable level.

Meat consumption in high-income countries is increasingly discussed due to its impact on environment and health as well as ethical considerations. The present paper aims to provide information on meat consumption behaviour, sociodemographic factors related to meat consumption and its associations with health and nutritional behaviour, based on the German National Nutrition Survey II. For 12 915 participants aged 18–80 years, food consumption was assessed by two 24-h recalls and further data by interviews. Participants were distinguished in non-meat consumers and meat consumers; meat consumers were further differentiated as low and high meat consumers (<86 g/d and ≥86 g/d). Group differences were analysed using binary logistic and linear regression models. More non-meat consumers were found among women, young and more educated persons. They showed equal or more preferable health characteristics, had a similar energy intake but ate more plant-based foods compared with meat consumers. More high meat consumers were found among men, young and middle-aged and lower-educated persons. Compared with low meat consumers, they showed equal or less preferable health characteristics, had a higher energy intake and ate more potatoes and sauces/spices and less of most other food groups in relation to their energy intake. To conclude, sociodemographic groups differ in their meat consumption and differences in meat consumption go together with differences in health behaviour and other food consumption.

Meat production and the transport sector contribute almost equally to global warming. However, unlike the transport sector, in terms of climate change policies meat production is relatively unregulated. Many scientists have called for a meat tax as a means of reducing consumption but governments and politicians have not responded. Has the law been an obstacle to the acceptance of a meat tax? To address that question, this article analyzes three examples of European Union (EU) taxes that could be imposed on the consumption of domestic and imported meat, and examines them in relation to the international climate change regime, human rights law, and the legal regimes of the World Trade Organization and the EU. It shows that, if carefully designed, an EU meat tax is consistent with these bodies of law. To address adequately the industrial sectors that give rise to global warming, governments will need to overcome the taboo relating to the concept of a meat tax.

The Fraser's dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei) is distributed in tropical and subtropical pelagic waters worldwide between 30°N and 30°S. The first report of this species in Brazilian waters occurred only in 1997. The northernmost report, up to now, occurred in Ceará State in 2001. The purpose of this work is to report a live stranding of Lagenodelphis hosei in Caburé city situated in Maranhão State (01°31′S 45°07′W), northern Brazilian coast. This stranding was reported through four photographs donated by a fisherman in August 2006. The specimen had an estimated length of 250 cm and was apparently emaciated, indicating that the dolphin could have presented some pathology. Despite the conservation activities, the meat of the stranded specimen was used as a food source by local fishermen and the carcass was left in the sea before the arrival of the researchers. This is the first confirmed report of a specimen of L. hosei for the northern Brazilian coast.

Global recognition of the need to conserve animal genetic resources comes at a time when the livestock sector faces significant challenges in meeting the growing demand for livestock products and the mitigation of negative environmental impacts caused by livestock. In developing regions it would seem that portions of the growing demand for livestock products are being met by increasing animal numbers instead of achieving increases in production efficiency. Concurrently, extensive grazing and mixed crop-livestock production systems are largely responsible for significant greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of environmental degradation. Under the growing demand and environmental sustainability rubric there exists a need to garner maximum benefit from diverse animal genetic resources. These three areas; growing demand on animal products, environmental issues, and conservation of AnGR form a nexus that national policies must simultaneously consider. To advance this integration, a policy framework is proposed that consists of incentives to produce, a secure resource base (e.g., genetic resources, land tenure) and access to markets for outputs and inputs including technology. Within this framework a set of potential policies are suggested that promote conservation, livestock sector growth and environmental sustainability.

Fundamental changes in the global structure of food demand will lead to an extra-ordinary increase in the importance of developing countries in global food markets. Economic growth in developing countries is changing consumption patterns, with slower growth (and in many countries actual declines) in per capita food consumption of grains and rapidly growing per capita and total meat consumption, combined with induced growth in cereal feed consumption. The present paper examines the hypothesis, suggested by some researchers, that high-meat diets in developed countries limit improvement in food security in developing countries. These analysts argue that reduced meat consumption in developed countries would release cereals from livestock feed to food for poorer populations, thus improving food security in developing countries. Using the International Food Policy Research Institute (Washington, DC, USA) global food projections model, the international model for policy analysis of agricultural com-modities and trade (see Rosegrant et al. 1995), we first analyse the implications for future global cereal and meat supply and demand resulting from changes in global income, population growth and other structural changes, then simulate alternative sce-narios to examine the effect of large reductions in meat consumption in developed coun-tries on food consumption and food security in developing countries. The paper shows that while the long-term prospects for food supply, demand and trade indicate a strength-ening of world cereal and livestock markets, the improvement in food security in the developing world will be slow, and changes in the dietary patterns in developed countries are not an effective route to improvement in food security in developing countries.

Most protein in sub-Saharan Africa comes from animal sources, a significant proportion of this from wild species or bushmeat. Availability of protein sources to human populations in Africa has not been studied before, perhaps because most population centres are too large for data collection to be practicable. Assessment of the availability and consumption of animal protein within the city of Malabo (c. 60 000 inhabitants), Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, included estimation of the annual animal protein supply to the city from daily counts of small livestock meats (goat, pork, lamb, duck, chicken), beef, fish and bushmeat (December 2003–March 2004) in the city's central market and other selling points, and the animal protein consumption per adult male equivalent (AME) derived from a sample of around 200 households to explore influence of household income on consumption of different protein sources. Current animal protein production (bushmeat, small livestock meats, beef and fish) in Bioko, and potential production needed to supply adequate amounts of protein to the people of Malabo in the future were calculated. Annually around 2100 t of meat/fish (460 t of animal protein) was available, of which only 7% was produced on the island. Consumption patterns indicated that larger-sized households purchased more meat, but protein intake per AME fell significantly with household size. Income was positively correlated with volume of small livestock meats consumed per household, but negatively related with bushmeat eaten. Income did not influence beef or fish consumption per household. Although the island is capable of producing more alternative meats, it cannot sustain itself on local production and will therefore continue to be dependent on importing a large proportion of meat (and protein). There is no dependency on bushmeat species, but current rates of wild species use can still have a dramatic impact on wildlife populations on the island if left unabated. Alternative ways of ensuring sufficient protein supply for the Malabo population are crucial for wildlife conservation, and curbing consumption of bushmeat species is of highest conservation priority now.

Eating behaviour depends partly on food preference, which is itself determined by different types of emotions. Among the emotions generated by food, disgust with red meat is common in women and can lead to reduced meat consumption. We tested the hypothesis that low meat intake is related to different negative emotions towards meat but does not affect the emotions expressed towards other food categories. Food intake of sixty women was followed throughout each day for 1 week and allowed us to assign women to two groups (low v. high meat-eating women). They were then invited to assess the intensity of twenty-six emotions described by words and induced by thirty food pictures. We determined the number of necessary dimensions to describe the space created by the twenty-six words. The results showed differences in emotions between the low and high meat-eating women. As expected, there were overall differences in the emotions generated by the thirty food pictures. Six clusters of emotions were necessary and sufficient to summarise the emotional space. These dimensions were described by ‘disappointment’, ‘satisfaction’, ‘guilt’, ‘doubt’, ‘amused’ and ‘indifference’. As expected, the low meat-eating women felt more ‘disappointment’, ‘indifference’ and less ‘satisfaction’ towards meat than did the high meat-eating women. However, the low meat-eating women also stated other negative emotions such as ‘doubt’ towards some starchy foods. The only foods that they liked more than high meat-eating women were pears and French beans. In conclusion, low meat consumption was associated with specific negative emotions regarding meat and other foods.