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27 results

Page 1 of 2

  • Chapter 1 - Introduction

  • Wolfgang Schnotz, University of Koblenz-Landau
  • Book:
    Multimedia Comprehension
    Published online:
    16 February 2023
    Print publication:
    23 February 2023, pp 1-12
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  • Summary

    This chapter aims at clarifying basic concepts related to multimedia: communication, comprehension, and learning. Multimedia communication is considered as the intentional creation, display, and reception of multiple kinds of signs in order to convey messages about some content. It entails two subprocesses: meaning and comprehension. Multimedia meaning is a process in which the producer of a message creates multiple external signs based on his or her prior knowledge in order to direct the recipient’s mind so that the recipient understands what the producer means. Multimedia comprehension is the complementary process of reconstructing the previously externalized knowledge in the mind of the recipient. It can be seen as the bottleneck of multimedia communication. Multimedia comprehension and multimedia learning are related but are nevertheless different: While multimedia comprehension results in transient changes in working memory, multimedia learning results in permanent changes in long-term memory. Multimedia learning is a byproduct of multimedia comprehension. Further, an overview of the book is presented.

  • The role of individual factors in L2 vocabulary learning with cognitive-linguistics-based static and dynamic visual aids

  • Takeshi Sato, Yuda Lai, Tyler Burden
  • Journal:
    ReCALL / Volume 34 / Issue 2 / May 2022
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    19 October 2021, pp. 201-217

  • The present study aims to verify the impact of dynamic aids on learning L2 prepositions in relation to individual learner variables. Situated within the cognitive linguistics (CL) framework and differing from previous research, the present study hypothesizes that dynamic (animated) aids are not equally effective for all learners; rather, their effectiveness differs according to learners’ first languages (L1s) (Chinese or Japanese) and information-processing styles (verbalizers or imagers). To verify this hypothesis, we utilized learning materials comprised of static and dynamic images for three English spatial prepositions (above, on, over). After conducting a Style of Processing questionnaire, we administered three cloze tests (pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest) of target words to Taiwanese and Japanese participants (N = 109), whose L1s differed in terms of their linguistic proximity to English. Although no significant differences were found between the treatment groups in tests for all participants, the results were differentiated by individual factors. In results of a two-way ANOVA, Taiwanese participants showed significantly greater improvement from the pretest to posttest than Japanese participants when the participants used dynamic images, whereas the Japanese group made more learning gains from the posttest to the delayed posttest test. Moreover, imagers obtained more benefits from the visual aids, whether static or dynamic, than verbalizers. Our findings indicate that CL-based visual aids are beneficial and that individual factors, especially learners’ L1, may produce different learning effects, especially in multimedia environments.

  • Effects of modality preference and working memory capacity on captioned videos in enhancing L2 listening outcomes

  • Emily Fen Kam, Yeu-Ting Liu, Wen-Ta Tseng
  • Journal:
    ReCALL / Volume 32 / Issue 2 / May 2020
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    14 February 2020, pp. 213-230

  • Captioned video is widely used to enhance second language (L2) learners’ exposure to oral input beyond the classroom setting, and captioning has been found to provide an instantaneous, useful visual aid for parsing and understanding L2 oral discourse. Nevertheless, a meta-analysis has shown that captioning exerts a selective effect on L2 learners with different profiles. This study investigated whether L2 learners’ modality preferences (visual vs. auditory) and working memory capacity (high vs. low) would modulate the effect of full captions on L2 listening outcome. Results from 60 participants revealed that both cognitive variables affected their L2 listening to different extents. Notably, working memory capacity modulates the impact of L2 learners’ preferred modality on their listening outcome. Modality preference did not exert any significant impact on the listening outcome of L2 learners with lower working memory capacity. For L2 learners with high working memory capacity, their modality preference played a pivotal role in modulating their listening outcome; in this case, auditory learners had the best listening performance viewing the video without captions, whereas visual learners did best when watching the captioned video. These findings speak to the need for taking individual differences into consideration when employing captioned videos.

  • 34 - Multimedia Learning in e-Courses

  • from Part V - Multimedia Learning in Advanced Computer-Based Contexts
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 842-882

  • Summary

    This chapter provides a systematic analysis of the links between intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) and multimedia, and identifies the multimedia elements that are used by different ITS applications. It discusses the implications of ITS findings for cognitive theory and instructional design, identifies limitations of existing research, and provides some directions for the future. Problem-solving tutors typically use a mixture of text and graphic media. Simulation-based ITS remain popular, particularly for tasks that are tightly linked to an operational environment, such as power plants, aviation, or military exercises. Game-based tutoring systems make use of the widest range of media to present content, especially those that combine elements from natural language tutors and simulation-based tutors. Research on advanced learning environments has investigated multimedia factors that have obvious links to deeper levels of cognition, such as feedback, learner control, and generation of information, interactivity, reflection, animation, simulation, and affect.

  • 6 - Ten Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 151-173

  • Summary

    This chapter outlines the cognitive architecture used by cognitive load theory, and provides a general indicator of its relevance to instructional design issues associated with multimedia instruction. Cognitive load theory has been one of the theories used to integrate our knowledge of human cognitive structures and instructional design principles. It is concerned with the elements of that theory and its general implications for multimedia learning, specifically words presented in spoken or written form along with pictures or diagrams. The chapter considers categories of knowledge from an evolutionary perspective, followed by an outline of those aspects of human cognitive architecture relevant to instructional concerns, also considered from an evolutionary perspective. The chapter discusses three categories of cognitive load: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load and germane cognitive load. All categories of cognitive load are concerned with the acquisition, storage and use of biologically secondary information.

  • 20 - The Multiple Representation Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 464-486

  • Summary

    This chapter reviews the guided discovery principle, according to which guidance should be given to students to ensure effective learning during scientific discovery in multimedia environments. At the heart of these environments often lies a computer simulation that students can use to discover scientific principles through experimentation. The chapter demonstrates the need for and effectiveness of particular types of guidance: process constraints, performance dashboard, prompts, heuristics, scaffolds, and direct presentation of information. Recent research findings that serve to exemplify this typology are discussed. This typology serves as an important first step toward the development of a cognitive theory of adaptive guidance that can determine the appropriate differentiation of instructional support based on the knowledge and skills of individual students. The design of future studies should build on the strengths of current research and avoid some of its weaknesses.

  • 30 - Multimedia Learning with Simulations and Microworlds

  • from Part V - Multimedia Learning in Advanced Computer-Based Contexts
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 729-761

  • Summary

    This chapter examines ways in which technology can provide a medium for innovative design and the delivery of instruction that can result in new ways of learning and high levels of student engagement. Scaffolding can be a cognitive support for problem solving or motivational support to help learners realize their potential. BioWorld is a technology-rich learning environment designed to support medical students as they develop clinical reasoning skills. As stated earlier, the educational platforms are varied; they include pedagogical agents that serve as intelligent virtual tutors that employ language, facial expressions, and gestures to create effective learning experiences; simulation-based environments for promoting team effectiveness in trauma units; multimedia game environments to promote reasoning; virtual reality to provide immersive learning experiences; communication based video technologies to promote cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary teaching experiences; and social networking tools that are reusable for creating new knowledge.

  • 11 - The Signaling (or Cueing) Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 263-278

  • Summary

    This chapter is a cautionary description of 10 of the questionable principles that have developed and seem to be widely shared about multimedia learning. The updated questionable beliefs include the expectations that multimedia instruction: yields more learning than live instruction or older media; is more motivating than other instructional media; provides animated pedagogical agents that aid learning; accommodates different learning styles and so maximizes learning for more students; and facilitates student-managed constructivist and discovery approaches that are beneficial to learning. The more recent additions and the focus of this discussion are expectations that multimedia instruction benefits learning by providing autonomy and control over the sequencing of instruction; higher-order thinking skills; incidental learning of enriching information; interactivity; and an authentic learning environment and activities. Finally, multimedia is confounded with the content of instruction, such as critical and higher-order thinking skills.

  • 13 - Principles for Managing Essential Processing in Multimedia Learning: Segmenting, Pre-training, and Modality Principles

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 316-344

  • Summary

    The split-attention principle states that in the design of instruction, including multimedia instruction, it is important to avoid materials that require learners to split their attention between, and mentally integrate, multiple sources of information. The sources of information should be both physically and temporally integrated in order to reduce unnecessary search for referents and so reduce extraneous cognitive load. Whether sources of information are intelligible in isolation, and whether the information is high in element interactivity, depends not only on the instructional material, but also on learner characteristics. Cognitive load theory, which gave rise to the split-attention principle, which is based on an understanding of human cognitive architecture, especially the relations between working and long term memory, provides theory-based and experimentally tested instructional guidelines. Those guidelines that are associated with the split-attention effect and that have been discussed in this chapter have the potential to substantially improve multimedia instruction.

  • 12 - Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning: Coherence, Signaling, Redundancy, Spatial Contiguity, and Temporal Contiguity Principles

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 279-315

  • Summary

    The term multimedia principle refers to the robust research finding that learning with words and pictures is more effective than learning with words alone. It should be noted that the multimedia principle refers generally to the (positive) impact of visual and verbal information on learning outcomes. However, basic principles and advanced principles of multimedia learning have been synthesized that provide a more nuanced approach to understanding how multimedia materials can be formatted for optimal impact and how learner strategies and processes can combine with multimedia materials to determine learning outcomes. That is, the multimedia principle provides a context for work that examines when, how, why, and under what conditions the multimedia principle applies. Research findings demonstrating the multimedia principle are consistent with the predictions of cognitive models of multimedia learning. Implications for instructional design and directions for future research are also discussed.

  • 7 - The Multimedia Principle

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 174-205

  • Summary

    Multimedia messages should be designed to facilitate multimedia learning processes. This chapter first explores three assumptions underlying a cognitive theory of multimedia learning: dual-channel assumption, limited-capacity assumption and active processing assumption. Three memory stores in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning are: sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory. For meaningful learning to occur in a multimedia environment, the learner must engage in five cognitive processes: selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working memory, selecting relevant images for processing in visual working memory, organizing selected words into a verbal model, organizing selected images into a pictorial model, and integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with relevant prior knowledge activated from long-term memory. The chapter also explores three demands on cognitive capacity during multimedia learning: extraneous processing, essential processing and generative processing.

  • 27 - Multimedia Learning of Metacognitive Strategies

  • from Part IV - Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Processes
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 647-672

  • Summary

    The collaboration principle in multimedia learning, which consists of three related sub-principles, determines when and under what conditions collaboration will positively affect learning in a multimedia environment. Flashmeeting is an example of multimedia collaborative environment that allows for tasks of various complexities to be carried out (Principle 1) and stimulates groups cognitive processes (Principle 2) by providing tools for real-time group work (with synchronous sound, pictures, text, etc.), a repository for sharing documents, and even recording facilities for the meeting, making information available to all participants asynchronously after the meeting has taken place (Principle 3). Collaboration in multimedia learning is effective when the distribution of tasks is such that the cognitive processes involved in carrying out the tasks and the products of those processes are complementary and/or supplementary. The collaborative principles in multimedia learning rest for a large part on hypotheses and assumptions about cognitive load.

  • 23 - The Collaboration Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 547-575

  • Summary

    This chapter discusses the generative drawing principle in multimedia learning. The generative drawing principle states that asking students to create drawings while reading text causes generative processing that leads to better learning outcomes. An important logistical issue when the generative drawing strategy is used is to create a form of drawing activity that minimizes the creation of extraneous cognitive processing by providing appropriate support for drawing. The studies reviewed in the chapter provide evidence for a positive effect of drawing. The results are also consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which posits that people who engage in generative processes while learning are more likely than those who do not to construct meaningful learning outcomes. An important logistical issue for instructional designers when using the drawing strategy is to create a form of drawing activity that minimizes the creation of extraneous cognitive processing, by providing appropriate support for drawing.

  • 22 - Animation Principles in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 513-546

  • Summary

    Multimedia learning environments present combinations of text, illustrations, narration, and animation and are typically computer-based. This chapter provides a brief review of the self-explanation principle, and introduces a framework for categorizing the number of ways in which self-explanation has been operationalized. While open-ended and menu-based approaches mark the two extremes, there are a number of ways of prompting students to self-explain that fall in the middle: focused, scaffolded, and resource-based prompts. Examples of each within the context of multimedia learning are presented. It presents a number of studies whose results support the hypothesis that self-explanation prompts that provide more focus or direction are particularly beneficial for multimedia learning environments, because they foster integration across multiple sources of information and help students to develop a single, coherent representation. The chapter also discusses implications for cognitive theory and instructional design and ideas for future work.

  • 24 - The Expertise Reversal Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 576-597

  • Summary

    This chapter explores the research evidence for the feedback principle in multimedia learning, to consider more complex learning environments such as simulation and game-based training, and to discuss the impact of the feedback principle on our theoretical understanding and implications for instructional design. According to the feedback principle in multimedia learning, novice students learn better with explanatory feedback than with corrective feedback alone. The theoretical rationale for the feedback principle is based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Research in the area of simulation-based training (SBT) has also examined the effectiveness of feedback for improving performance and learning. When implementing explanatory feedback, instructional designers should take care not to increase extraneous processing by considering other multimedia learning principles, such as the modality principle. There is still much research left to do to define the boundary conditions of the feedback principle.

  • 8 - The Split-Attention Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part II - Basic Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 206-226

  • Summary

    This chapter presents an integrated model of text and picture comprehension (ITPC model) that takes into account that learners can use multiple sensory modalities combined with different forms of representation. Multimedia learning can occur in different forms. When learners understand texts and pictures, they construct multiple mental representations in their cognitive system. Research in cognitive psychology suggests that the architecture of the human cognitive system includes multiple memory systems. A common view proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin distinguishes three memory subsystems - sensory registers, working memory, and long-term memory with different functions and different constraints on processing texts and pictures. The ITPC model of text and picture comprehension provides a framework for the analysis of learning from multiple representations including spoken or written text, visual pictures, and sound pictures. Future research will clarify whether the ITPC model is a useful tool for the analysis of text-picture integration.

  • 31 - Multimedia Learning with Computer Games

  • from Part V - Multimedia Learning in Advanced Computer-Based Contexts
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 762-784

  • Summary

    This chapter focuses on defining and illustrating multimedia learning of metacognitive strategies, and reviews the empirical literature on multimedia learning of metacognitive strategies. It provides suggestions for augmenting contemporary cognitive theories of multimedia learning, proposes empirically based principles for designing multimedia environments aimed at fostering metacognitive strategies, and recommends several areas for future research. The chapter specifies self-regulated learning (SRL) as a concept superordinate to metacognition that incorporates both metacognitive monitoring (i.e., knowledge of cognition or metacognitive knowledge) and metacognitive control, as well as processes related to manipulating contextual conditions and planning for future activities within a learning episode. More research on multimedia learning of metacognitive strategies is needed to determine the optimal length of various phases of training programs and their effectiveness in laboratory versus real-world settings, as well as the retention and transfer of strategies to other domains and computer-based learning environments (CBLEs).

  • 17 - The Self-Explanation Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 413-432

  • Summary

    Essential overload occurs when the amount of essential cognitive processing required by the multimedia instructional message exceeds the learner's cognitive capacity. This chapter examines the research evidence concerning three principles of multimedia design aimed at minimizing the effects of essential overload: the segmenting principle, the pre-training principle, and the modality principle. According to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the three ways to handle an essential overload situation are to allow the learner to slow down the pace of presentation (segmenting principle), provide the learner with knowledge that reduces the need for cognitive processing of the presentation (pre-training principle), or off-load some of the visual information onto the auditory channel (modality principle). The research reviewed in the chapter shows that instructional designers should be sensitive to working memory constraints when presenting a complex multimedia lesson.

  • 15 - The Guided Discovery Learning Principle in Multimedia Learning

  • from Part III - Advanced Principles of Multimedia Learning
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 371-390

  • Summary

    The signaling principle, also known as the cueing principle, refers to the finding that people learn more deeply from a multimedia message when cues are added that guide attention to the relevant elements of the material or highlight the organization of the essential material. This chapter reviews the main findings from research on signaling in multimedia learning addressing the effects of incorporating cues into the text, the picture, or both. Text-based cues can consist of sentences that precede the learning materials and highlight their organization. Picture-based cues can consist, for instance, of arrows in which case they are extrinsic in the sense that an element is added to the picture. The chapter considers the design of cues based on eye movements and the effects of using eye movements as cues. The signaling principle may have some relation to other principles identified by the cognitive theory of multimedia learning as well.

  • 5 - The Four-Component Instructional Design Model: Multimedia Principles in Environments for Complex Learning

  • from Part I - Theoretical Foundations
  • Edited by Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
    Published online:
    05 August 2014
    Print publication:
    28 July 2014, pp 104-148

  • Summary

    This introductory chapter provides a definition of multimedia learning, offers a rationale for multimedia learning, outlines the research base for multimedia learning, summarizes changes since the first edition, and draws distinctions between the two approaches to multimedia design, three metaphors of multimedia learning, three kinds of multimedia learning outcomes, and two kinds of active learning. Multimedia represents a potentially powerful learning technology that is, a system for enhancing human learning. A practical goal of research on multimedia is to devise design principles for multimedia presentations. In addressing this goal, it is useful to distinguish between two approaches to multimedia design a technology-centered approach and a learner-centered approach. Response, strengthening, information acquisition, and knowledge construction are three metaphors of multimedia learning. Research on learning shows that meaningful learning depends on the learner's cognitive activity during learning rather than on the learner's behavioral activity during learning.

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