According to conventional wisdom, a great power engaging in international retrenchment regularly incurs tremendous costs. Following its withdrawal from a commitment abroad, the argument goes, windows of opportunity emerge that rivals exploit to their benefit, thus imposing significant costs on the retrenching great power. I argue that pundits and policymakers consistently overestimate the dangers associated with strategic withdrawals: great powers can – and in the past frequently have – successfully engaged in international retrenchment without creating opportunities for their rivals to gain significant strategic benefits. To make this case, I develop a new typology of international retrenchment strategies based on the kind and degree of disengagement they entail and demonstrate that most types do not regularly pave the way for rival gains. I support my argument through a series of plausibility probes: the Soviet retrenchment from Romania in the 1950s; the US retrenchment from Korea in the 1970s; and the US retrenchment from Western Europe in the 1990s.

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in significantly increased adrenal activity as well as significant changes in a variety of other physiological parameters. There is no scientific evidence that the animals adequately habituate to involuntary restraint. Numerous reports have been published demonstrating that non-human primates can readily be trained to cooperate rather than resist during common handling procedures such as capture, venipuncture, injection and veterinary examination. Cooperative animals fail to show behavioural and physiological signs of distress. It was concluded that the advantages of training techniques over traditional restraint techniques will have to be explored more extensively in the future for the sake of research subjects and scientific methodology.

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the welfare of pregnant mares kept in straight stalls and given only limited exercise, conditions that are similar to those encountered in the pregnant mare urine industry. Sixteen pregnant mares (eight in each of two years) were randomly assigned to two groups: Ex (exercised in a paddock for 30 min per day) or NoEx (exercised for one 30 min period every 14 days). The horses were housed in straight (or ‘tie’) stalls for six months and had ad libitum access to grass hay. Each horse's behaviour was recorded on videotape once per week for 24 h. The major behaviours were eating hay, standing, and stand-resting (head down and one hind limb flexed). There was no difference between the behaviours or the number of foot lifts per min of the Ex and NoEx groups in their stalls. Nine of 16 mares were not observed in recumbency throughout the whole of the six-month observation period, suggesting that horses with no previous experience in straight stalls may be reluctant to lie down. Thirteen of 16 mares dropped to their knees at least once, probably when they were REM sleeping while standing. There were no significant differences between the Ex and the NoEx mares in baseline plasma Cortisol levels or in Cortisol response to ACTH. Following 30 min of exercise, NoEx mares showed an increase in Cortisol from 5.0 to 5.4 μg dL−1, whereas Ex mares showed a decrease from 4.6 to 3.6 µg dL−1. The NoEx horses that had been confined for two weeks trotted more (NoEx = 22 [6-38; median and range]% of time; Ex = 2.4 [0-8.7]%) and galloped more (NoEx = 6 [2-8]%; Ex = 0 [0-4]%) than the Ex that were released daily, but walked less (NoEx = 17 [10-26]%; Ex = 35 [20-40]%) and grazed less (NoEx = 0%; Ex = 3 [0-12]%). Confined horses show rebound locomotion — that is, a compensatory increase — when released from confinement, indicating a response to exercise deprivation.

Housing conditions can alter both the physiology and behaviour of laboratory animals. Forced-air-ventilated micro-isolation systems increase the efficient use of space, decrease the incidence of disease among laboratory rodents, and provide better working conditions for animal care staff; however, such systems can increase breeding variability and mortality. We examined the possibility that stressors associated with automated housing conditions evoke subtle changes among immune, endocrine, and behavioural parameters in mice housed in a static versus a forced-air-ventilated micro-isolation system. In addition, we assessed the effects of housing in the forced-air-ventilated micro-isolation system both with and without the use of an automatic watering system. Housing in the forced-air-ventilated micro-isolation system, using the automatic watering system, suppressed delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses, a measure of cell mediated immune function, compared with the responses of mice housed in static cages. Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis function was also altered by housing in the forced-air-ventilated micro-isolation system with the use of the automatic watering system, such that mice in this housing system had lower resting corticosterone concentrations and increased reactivity to restraint. Despite these changes in corticosterone, housing condition did not alter activity level or exploratory, anxiety-like, or depressive-like behaviours. These results suggest that investigators should carefully consider housing conditions in studies of immune and endocrine function.

Minimising the effects of restraint and human interaction on the endocrine physiology of animals is essential for collection of accurate physiological measurements. Our objective was to compare stress-induced cortisol (CORT) and noradrenalin (NorA) responses in automated vs manual blood sampling in pigs. A total of 16 pigs (30 kg) were assigned to either: (i) automated blood sampling via an indwelling catheter using a novel-penning system called PigTurn® which detects the pig's rotational movement and responds by counter-rotating, allowing free movement while preventing catheter twisting; (ii) automated sampling while exposed to visual and auditory responses of manually sampled pigs; or (iii) manual sampling by jugular venipuncture while pigs were restrained in dorsal recumbency. During sampling of (i), personnel were not permitted in the room; samplings of (ii) and (iii) were performed simultaneously in the same room. Blood samples were collected every 20 min for 120 min and measured for CORT (ng ml−1) using mass spectrometry and NorA (pg ml−1) using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Effects of treatment and time were computed with mixed models adjusted by Tukey post hoc. CORT and NorA concentrations were lowest in group (i) followed by group (ii), which were not different. However, CORT and NorA levels in manually sampled animals (iii) were highest compared to automated methods (i) and (ii). Plasma concentrations across time were not different for CORT, but NorA concentration at time 0 min was higher than at 120 min. The presence of visual and auditory stimuli evoked by manual sampled animals did not affect non-handled pigs’ responses. Restraint and manual sampling of pigs can be extremely stressful while the automated blood sampling of freely moving pigs, housed in the PigTurn® was significantly less stressful for the animals.

The restraint and sedation of wild animals has welfare implications, thus animal handling procedures should be well-informed and optimised to adhere to welfare standards. Furthermore, it is important that handling procedures should not cause future trap avoidance. This is of particular pertinence to European badgers (Meles meles), subject to extensive cage-trapping, relating to bovine tuberculosis epidemiology. We examined 4,288 capture/recapture events for 856 individual badgers, occurring between May 1999-September 2011, recording initial observed behaviour and reaction provoked by injection, on a scale ranging from still (0) to distressed/aggressive (3). Eighty-seven percent of adults and 76% of cubs were still (0) when approached initially and 75% of adults and 62% of cubs remained still when injected. Cubs exhibited significantly higher behavioural responses than adults, while female adults scored higher provoked scores than males. Importantly, the initial behaviour of an individual dictated its provoked response. Previous experience of capture was associated with lower subsequent behavioural response scores, while naïve badgers were most prone to score highly. Individuals first caught as cubs scored lower initial responses than those first caught as adults. Lower initial responses occurred in spring and summer and higher responses were associated with lice infestation. Behavioural criteria have potential to inform and optimise welfare in badger capture operations. This contributes to techniques allowing simple, non-invasive assessment of how wild animals in general respond to temporary restraint, where the psychological perception acts as the precursor to physiological stress.

The stunning of ostriches (Struthio camelus) has traditionally been carried out with hand-held tongs whilst birds are held in a restraining area by applying pressure normally from behind by gently pushing on the tail feathers. The area is often a V-shaped structure, high enough that the stunning operator is not kicked. After stunning, the birds are rocked backwards and a rubberised leg clamp placed over the legs at the tarso-metatarsal bone allowing the birds to be chain-shackled by the big toes. This stunning procedure has been replaced by a new restraining and stunning mechanism which completely envelops the ostrich in a padded clamp holder. Double-padded sides restrain the bird's upper thighs and a rubberised foot clamp holds the feet so there is no physical damage to the bird. As the bird is electrically stunned with electrodes placed both sides of the head, the entire stunning box rotates 180° so that toe clamps can be applied without any danger to the stunning operators. Within 20 s of stunning, the birds are bled by means of a complete ventral cut to the neck and/or by thoracic sticking.

This article reviews current evidence on the use of coercive measures, including seclusion and restraint, in psychiatric in-patient settings in Europe. There is a particular focus on evidence regarding the use of mechanical restraint. The review seeks to describe when the use of restrictive interventions such as restraint may be necessary, to explore the use of restraint in certain specialist settings and to investigate current laws and European policies on seclusion and restraint. The current rates of restraint in European psychiatric settings are explored, with a discussion of the limitations of the evidence currently available. The article discusses various consequences of seclusion and restraint, potential alternatives to their use and strategies to minimise their use and harm to patients. The use of coercive measures from an international context is considered, to provide context.

Eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric condition. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of patients who have required medical stabilisation on paediatric wards has increased significantly. Likewise, the number of patients who have required medical stabilisation against their will as a lifesaving intervention has increased. This paper highlights a fictional case study aiming to explore the legal, ethical and practical considerations a trainee should be aware of. By the end of this article, readers will be more aware of this complex issue and how it might be managed, as well as the impact it can have on the patient, their family and ward staff.