The proliferation of a wide variety of family forms has challenged the centrality and necessity of the traditional nuclear family as a context for successful socialization. Views of the importance of the gender of parents, sexual orientation of parents, biological relatedness of family members, and new routes to parenthood are challenged. Increases in divorce, the rise in the number of stepfamilies, cohabitating couples, single parents, and adoption raise further questions about the links between both the number of parents and the biological ties among family members. The gender, sexual orientation, or biological relatedness of the agent of delivery of the critical ingredients for socialization (i.e., stimulation, nurturance ,guidance, limit setting) or the family form in which these processes are enacted are less important than the processes themselves. Second, an interdependent model of family functioning is proposed, which reflects the increasing degree of outsourcing of tasks and responsibilities. To maximize assistance available to a full range of family forms, it is critical that policy makers recognize the diversity of family forms and develop suitable policies.

The goal of this chapter is to address how urban dynamics at the neighborhood level are linked to children’s development. We first review trends in the spatial concentration of poverty and inequality in the United States in recent decades. Then, we turn to theoretical models describing how local communities, with a focus on urban settings, influence children’s development. We then cover methodological issues and focus on one critical issue, selection bias, and then briefly review study designs as related to this challenge. Finally, we provide an overview of empirical studies linking neighborhood, socioeconomic conditions, and children’s development, notably their educational, behavioral, and socioemotional outcomes.