This chapter presents a brief theoretical overview of intelligence, cognition, and expertise and their theoretical basis for use in the subsequent chapters. It introduces the main models of intelligence including trait and factorial models, the triarchic mind, and multiple intelligence theories. It then reviews the approach of cognitive psychology based upon early computer modelling of human cognition, schemas and frames, production systems, and episodic and semantic memory. Finally, it reviews expert systems, expert knowledge acquisition and retrieval, practice, transfer of skill, flexibility of knowledge retrieval, and how all of these factors influence the ability of an individual to make transitions in their careers.

This chapter examines second language learning and teaching from a skills perspective, that is, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The chapter first explains the differences among the four skills (e.g., receptive vs. productive; the necessity of formal instruction). Then, the chapter dissects each skill. As for reading and writing, the chapter discusses the necessity of formal instruction, and how the two skills are developed cognitively. The chapter also distinguishes writing-to-learn-language and learning-to-write. In terms of listening, the chapter explains different ways of processing incoming information (i.e., parsing). In relation to speaking, the chapter discusses differences between monologues or dialogues and the influence that time pressure has on second language production. By drawing on the previous chapters focusing on specific language components, the chapter ends with pedagogical recommendations for teaching the academic skills (e.g., how to target and sequence different skills).

In this chapter, we start by defining and illustrating the notions of discourse relations and connectives. We will see that even though the role of discourse connectives is to make discourse relations explicit in discourse, their use is not necessary for a discourse relation to be communicated. Conversely, connectives are not always associated with a specific discourse relation: many of them can convey various relations depending on the context. Another goal of this chapter is to situate discourse relations and connectives within the more general concepts of discourse cohesion and coherence. We will see that connectives represent one type of cohesive tie and that discourse relations are crucial elements ensuring local coherence within a discourse. In the last part of the chapter, we present some important underlying methodological and theoretical choices that were made when selecting the topics covered in the book and the data presented in each chapter. We also emphasize that the study of discourse connectives and relations has many interfaces with other domains of linguistic analysis such as semantics, pragmatics and syntax.

Spark SQL is a module in Spark for structured data processing, which improves upon RDDs. The chapter explains how imposing structure on the data helps Spark perform further optimizations. We talk about the transition from RDDs to DataFrames and Datasets, including a brief description of the Catalyst and Tungsten projects. In Python, we don’t have Datasets, and we focus on DataFrames. With a learn-by-example approach, we see how to create DataFrames, inferring the schema automatically or manually, and operate with them. We show how these operations usually feel more natural for SQL developers, but we can interact with this API following an object-oriented programming style or SQL. Like we did with RDDs, we showcase various examples to demonstrate the functioning of different operations with DataFrames. Starting from standard transformations such as select or filter, we move to more peculiar operations like Column transformations and how to perform efficient aggregations using Spark functions. As advanced content, we include implementing user-defined functions for DataFrames, as well as an introduction to pandas-on-Spark, a powerful API for those programmers more used to pandas.

Newell & Simon’s 1972 book Human Problem Solving continues to influence theories of problem solving. Their theory provides a general framework for specifying how the structure of the problem, strategies, and different sources of knowledge influence progress from the initial state to the goal state. In contrast, discovering solutions for problems studied by Gestalt psychologists typically require a perceptual reorganization to identify the correct relations among the components of the problem. A rapid shift to a correct organization is referred to as ‘insight’. Solving mathematics and scientific problems requires utilizing information learned in the classroom. This information is organized into clusters of knowledge that are typically called ‘schema’. Design problems are usually ill-structured in which the initial, goal, and intermediate states are incompletely specified. There are no right or wrong answers, only better and worse ones. The size and complexity of the problems require decomposition into smaller problems or modules.

Cognitive techniques in schema therapy make use of an array of methods traditionally drawn from cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) but which focus on the ‘schema’ or ‘mode’ level. However, in clients with more chronic presentations (e.g. those with a personality disorder), the healthy part as addressed in traditional CBT is often not sufficiently developed. Cognitive methods and techniques in schema therapy therefore need to be adjusted to the particular mode being targeted and must take into account the limited capacity for rational, reflective processing often seen during the initial phases of therapy. Socratic dialogue, for example, might not prove effective when addressing a Parent mode in the start phase of therapy. Frequently used cognitive techniques in the early phase of schema therapy focus on developing awareness of activated schemas or modes through the use of psychoeducation, using the white board or flip-over to reformulate emotional experiences into modes, and the use of cognitive ‘schema’ or ‘mode’ diaries. In the later stages of therapy cognitive techniques are used to change the beliefs in activated schemas or modes. This can include simple (e.g. listing pros and cons of a coping mode) or more complex techniques (e.g. Socratic dialogue).

Chapter 7 explores recent splinters or CFs in the making. It investigates the profitability of five initial and eight final splinters, originally viewed as blend parts and later developed as frequent spliters used in series, to form new words by analogy.

Chapter 7 provides a detailed discussion of cognitive context, communication context, and how they interact in conversation.It covers framing and relevance theory, and introduces politeness and facework.

This chapter discusses network theories in psychology (Lang, 1994; Leventhal, 1984; Lewis, 2005) and kindred theories in philosophy (Colombetti, 2009). While evolutionary theories focus on innate mechanisms, network theories shift focus to learning. Network theories propose the following causal-mechanistic explanation of emotion. An emotion is caused by the activation of an emotion network in memory, made up of representations of stimuli, emotional components (appraisals, somatic and motor responses, and feelings), and related information. The network can be activated via the stimulus side or the response side. Network theories come in a biological version, in which networks are built around affect programs, and a non-biological version, in which networks result from mutual interactions between emotional components. The biological version postulates that emotion networks have multiple layers, of which only some (those containing perceptual and/or response nodes) can directly cause emotions. The biological version accounts for the properties of ontogenetic and phylogenetic continuity, Intentionality, phenomenality, bodily aspect, heat, control precedence, and irrationality, even if the (world-directed) Intentionality is rather optional. The non-biological version is less suited to account for continuity. The biological version delivers discrete emotions whereas the non-biological version does not necessarily do so. Empirical research that tests network theories is discussed.

There are many difficulties in presenting data to the best advantage, using Figures, Tables, images, schemas, etc. Issues such as size, amount of data being included, optimal layout for ease of reading, and other problems are covered. Units, scale bars, statistical indicators, significance and a host of other matters are discussed. The place to present data is considered, i.e. whether some of the slightly less relevant findings or methods should go into 'Supplementary Information'.

This chapter seeks to resolve the puzzle of people’s low accuracy in perceptions of local network properties versus their much higher accuracy in perceiving global network structures. We argue that this puzzle is more apparent than real because humans rely on layers of relational schemata—mental structures dictating how social agents ought to be structurally connected—to mentally organize their social contacts. In other words, differences in accuracy reflect differences in the schemata used by the individual to mentally represent social network information at varying levels (e.g., dyadic level, triadic level, and community level). Individuals vary in their schemata repertoire, and their tendencies to adopt certain schemata in a given situation or context, so the specific set of schemata that individuals activate varies in its sufficiency and appropriateness for fully representing the network structure. We define these individual differences as network representation capacities, and review and compare four prominent approaches to quantifying them: the error paradigm, the free-recall paradigm, the structural learning paradigm and the statistical learning paradigm. We conclude by inviting researchers to reconsider the relations between cognition and egocentric networks, as well as the role of network analysis in analyzing, describing and prescribing social relational behavior.

This chapter presents a framework for considering contextual, intraindividual, and interindividual processes that may predict variation in children’s tendency to seek revenge. Drawing on research with adults and aggression to inform hypotheses, the chapter outlines and reviews theory and evidence about the social-cognitive and affective predictors of revenge-seeking. Additionally, individual differences in information processing patterns, emotional regulation, and physiological responses that are likely to increase or decrease desires for revenge are discussed. Contextual and situational features that may affect individuals’ likelihood of seeking revenge or retaliating for harm are also briefly explored.

Chapter 5, “The Guiding Thread of Inner Experience”, explores the regulative use of the idea of the soul with regard to inner experience (as discussed in the Appendix to the Transcendental Dialectic of the first Critique). The chapter argues that the idea of the soul provides a presentation (Darstellung) of a mental whole in relation to which we can first determine inner appearances, without cognizing the whole as such. Employed as an “analogue of a schema” (A655/B693), the idea substitutes for all those schemata that cannot be applied to inner appearances, including the schema of persistence, and outlines the domain within which inner experience can be operative as empirical cognition of inner appearances. The chapter thus establishes the first central thesis of my view, which I develop in contrast to two rival interpretations: the noumenal view, which conceives of the soul as a noumenal substance, and the fictional view, according to which the soul is a mere fiction.

This paper addresses the generality problem arising for the use of spatial figures in geometry by emphasizing Kant’s notion of the schema of a geometrical concept (in contrast to an individual figure falling under that concept). It then relates this notion of schema to space as a form of intuition by connecting geometrical constructions (examples of Kantian schemata) with the possible perspectives of the perceiving subject within space as the form of outer intuition. And it uses this relationship between geometrical schemata and what I thus call "perceptual space" (the form of outer intuition) to develop a new interpretation of the relationship between the understanding and sensibility in section 26 of the Transcendental Deduction. The result is a reading of Kant on space and geometry that shows how geometrical, perceptual, and physical space are necessarily related to one another.

All aspects of linguistic knowledge are ultimately based on speakers’ experience with lexical expressions, but of course, knowledge of language, notably, grammar, exceeds their memory of particular lexical tokens. It is a standard assumption of the usage-based approach that grammar involves a taxonomic network of constructions ranging from prefabricated strings of lexical expressions to highly abstract schemas. Chapter 4 describes the taxonomic organization of constructions and their development in L1 acquisition and language change. It includes a detailed discussion of current research on statistical grammar learning in infancy, the acquisition of constructions during the preschool years and two case studies on the rise of constructional schemas in language history.

All aspects of linguistic knowledge are ultimately based on speakers’ experience with lexical expressions, but of course, knowledge of language, notably, grammar, exceeds their memory of particular lexical tokens. It is a standard assumption of the usage-based approach that grammar involves a taxonomic network of constructions ranging from prefabricated strings of lexical expressions to highly abstract schemas. Chapter 4 describes the taxonomic organization of constructions and their development in L1 acquisition and language change. It includes a detailed discussion of current research on statistical grammar learning in infancy, the acquisition of constructions during the preschool years and two case studies on the rise of constructional schemas in language history.