This chapter discusses the philosophical and historical underpinnings of CBT. Attention is given to how CBT and REBT developed, and how these differ in terms of points of theory and intervention. Concepts such as ‘perfectionism’, ‘intolerance of uncertainty’, and ‘self-compassion’ are discussed regarding possible commonalities these approaches share with ideas posited by early theorists. Specific attention is given to Ellis’s ABC model of personality and how it is currently utilized within CBT. Recent developments within CBT such as ACT are included. Protocol-driven CBT and the possible implications for quality of CBT training (e.g., Improving Access to Psychological Treatments, UK training courses) are included.

How expansive are the social meanings inferred by a nonstandard syntactic variant, and how are these social meanings constructed? This chapter suggests that the social meanings of syntax lie at the nexus of pragmatics and social distribution. Furthermore, the analysis shows that certain social meanings are enriched when syntactic items co-occur with specific phonetic variants. Drawing upon an ethnographic study of adolescents, this chapter focuses on the social meanings of negative concord by exploring the correlation between social class, social practice, topic of talk, nonstandard phonetic variants and instances of negative concord. Negative concord increases across social groups in-line with their placement on a pro-/anti-school continuum, but a topic analysis suggests that this a consequence of different groups talking about different things: there is more negative concord in talk about delinquent behaviour than there is in talk about non-delinquent behaviour (irrespective of social group). In exploring why negative concord is a useful device for talking about delinquency, the pragmatics of the construction itself are examined, exposing a relationship between social distribution and pragmatic function. Finally, an analysis of the relationship between negative concord and co-occurring phonetic variants suggests that different levels of linguistic architecture work synergistically to create social meaning.

Third wave treats linguistic variation as “a social semiotic system” (Eckert 2012, 94) and examines the emergence of social meaning in the stylistic enactment of social personae (Eckert 2012 and 2016). This chapter further develops this emergent perspective on sociolinguist variation. Drawing on my research on Cosmopolitan Mandarin in China, I treat linguistic innovation and change as emergent stylistic resources that create meanings about (new) social distinction. I combine quantitative analysis of production data with examination of metapragmatic discourse to shed light on the processes through which the social meanings of this innovative linguistic style emerge. The analyses reveal a contested indexical field mediated by changing ideologies about social and linguistic normativity and authenticity. This chapter shows that Cosmopolitan Mandarin participates in a broader sociopolitical process of the transformation of stylistic regimes in China.

Propelled by the third wave of variationist sociolinguistics, the present work argues that pragmatic and variationist inquiry are mutually enriching and fundamentally united. Relying on both traditions, I develop a general principle of language use and interpretation – briefly: utterances are evaluated according to not only their own semiotic character but also what sets them apart from that of alternative utterances that appear to offer a favorable mix of costs and benefits in context. I demonstrate that these principles underlie a wide range of phenomena observed in third-wave and pragmatics literature, with particular focus on two cases of social meaning rooted in semantically based inferences: (i) John McCain’s reference to Barack Obama as ‘that one’ in a 2008 US presidential debate; and (ii) the tendency for phrases of the form the Xs (e.g. the Democrats) to depict the referents as a bloc separate from the speaker in a way that bare plurals (e.g Democrats) do not (Acton 2019). As I will show, the perspective developed in this work makes principled predictions and leads us to expect to find complex and varied interactions across and within multiple dimensions of meaning.

This chapter explores the cognitive links necessary to create and use indexical meaning of sociolinguistic variation, specifically, whether different sociolinguistic behaviors – speech perception, speech production, and sociolinguistic evaluation – depend on the same associative links between linguistic and social concepts. Three effects are replicated and the correlations between them examined: 1 influence of speaker gender on /s/ production; 2 influence of linguistic forms (/s/ variants) on speaker evaluation (masculinity judgments); 3 influence of social information (masculinity) on speech perception (placement of the /s/-/?/ boundary). Despite successful replication of all three effects, little evidence was found for correlations across participants: that is, participants with a particularly strong tendency to infer masculinity from hearing a speaker’s /s/ production were no more likely than others to show a large shift in their /s/-/?/ boundary in response to the perceived masculinity of the talker, or to have a particularly gender-typical /s/ production themselves. This provides preliminary evidence that the mental associations used in indexical practices may develop independently of one another.