This chapter discusses the contextualization of human traits in situations. Most of the research on contextualizing traits has, up to now, been centered on personality traits. Therefore, much of the examination is on how personality traits relate to situations, but it extrapolates those findings to virtues and discusses theory and research related to the contextualization of virtue traits. In the exploration of trait contextualization, the chapter clarifies that current understandings of traits do not take them to be simplistic behavioral tendencies that manifest despite contextual influences. Instead, the contemporary understanding of traits is that they are virtually always influenced by situational factors. It explores direct situational influence on action, the ways individuals influence situations, and three types of person–situation interactions. It then presents practical wisdom as a generally neglected feature of person-situation interactions. The chapter argues that practical wisdom's role in person–situation interactions goes beyond what shows up in personality research by clarifying that some individuals see more opportunities for virtue trait expression in situations than others. Moreover, this practical wisdom underwrites high-quality decision-making. It concludes by discussing how a virtue perspective adds important elements (agency, aspiration, and practical wisdom) to the contextualization of traits.

Empirical virtue researchers have not generally relied on robust virtue theory. Without a unifying theory of virtue, scientific studies have developed without guidance, and the result is a patchwork of relatively disconnected studies of specific virtues based on ad hoc assumptions about those virtues. Therefore, this chapter presents an ecumenical, realistic virtue theory as a conceptual foundation for empirical research in virtue science. It suggests that moral virtues are (1) acquired traits that are (2) manifested in behavior, (3) steered by knowledge, and (4) fully motivated. The virtue theory presented is inspired by philosophic work (primarily Aristotle and Confucius), but it does not engage in the contentious debates active in philosophical approaches to virtue, leaving aside the debates about the nature and importance of ideal human virtue and focusing on the ordinary virtues that are often ascribed to people who are morally good. We also discuss the important role of culture in virtue definition. Finally, we outline the four components of virtue: (1) behavior, (2) cognition, (3) emotion/motivation, and (4) practical wisdom.

This chapter begins an in-depth discussion of the proposed STRIVE-4 Model. It focuses on the S (scalar) and T (trait) of the model. To demonstrate that virtues can be captured in a scalar manner, It highlights studies that support the reliability and validity of constructs. Virtues such as courage, gratitude, and compassion have all been established as scalar constructs and have been related to a variety of expected well-being outcomes. The chapter further highlights empirical evidence showing that virtues cannot be subsumed by personality research or social desirability, and that informant reports further confirm researchers’ ability to capture scalar virtues. To highlight empirical work on virtues as traits, it discusses the value of intensive longitudinal studies. These studies demonstrate between-person variability and within-person consistency to support the hypothesis that virtues are traits. Finally, the chapter closes by discussing some challenges of virtue assessment, including Aristotle’s assertion of the golden mean and how to understand vice traits. Altogether, the evidence favors assessing virtues as scalar traits. It suggests it is time for researchers to advance virtue science with more sophisticated methods.

This chapter outlines several threads of personality psychology to explore what it can tell us about virtue science. Personality psychology includes structural approaches (e.g., Big 5 and HEXACO), process approaches (e.g., the Cognitive-Affective Processing System or CAPS), integrations of structural and process approaches (e.g., Whole Trait Theory and the Three-Tiered Framework of Personality), and an emerging focus on systematic changes in personality through the lifespan. This research has clarified that traits exist and are measurable, that traits relate predictably to meaningful outcomes, that informant reports correlate to self-reports on personality, and that personality emerges cross-culturally. CAPS was developed to account for situational variation in personality expression. The systematic developmental changes in personality suggest that individuals mature as they adopt important roles in life, such as work and mating relationships. The integrative approaches to personality highlight its multidimensional nature and make it reasonable to consider merging the study of personality and virtue. The chapter concludes by arguing that virtues and personality dimensions are sufficiently different because virtue science emphasizes morality, choice, and practical wisdom, whereas personality theory and research do not. It suggests that traits may be best understood as a genus with at least two species: personality and virtue.

This chapter discusses the contextualization of human traits in social roles. It begins by exploring how personality traits relate to social roles, then it extrapolates those findings related to virtues and discusses theory and research on social roles and virtue traits. The discussion of the social role contextualization is based on identity theory, which explains that social roles are repetitive patterns of action that are included in social structures and result in role identity formation in the individual. The chapter reiterates that up-to-date trait conceptualizations do not view them as simplistic behavioral tendencies that manifest in any social role. Instead, traits are currently understood as influenced by social role expectations. Practical wisdom plays a large part in the expression of virtues through social roles. Practical wisdom adds an element to virtue expression and social roles that is absent in personality research because some individuals see more opportunities for virtue trait expression within a role than others. It then clarifies this theoretical discussion with examples of common role and virtue enactments from the parenting, teaching, and healing roles. It concludes by discussing how a virtue perspective adds important elements (agency, aspiration, and practical wisdom) to the contextualization of traits.

This chapter demonstrates how concrete practices align and form a praxis, using the field of self-esteem research as a case study – as one of the most popular concepts in both academic and pseudo psychology. The mainstream praxis of self-esteem research is dissected in the context of enacting a substance ontology. Here Aristotle’s distinction between particulars (i.e., primary substances) and universals (i.e., secondary substances) is applied as a way of making sense of various dominant practices in self-esteem research. The tendency to reify self-esteem is discussed, including how this relates to objectivist measurement-standards of self-esteem, an emphasis on predicting ‘levels’ of self-esteem, and a societal need and felt-responsibility to ‘boost’ self-esteem. I discuss how the mainstream praxis of self-esteem research demonstrates an attempt to position our field (and individual scientist identities) as ‘scientific’, thus revealing a (inaccurate) natural-science envy.

Approaching AN from a temperament-based neurobiological perspective provides a biological foundation and conceptual framework from which to view symptoms and the underlying mechanisms that drive behavior. Temperament informs targeted interventions directed at the cause of the behavior, rather than the behavior itself. This is a paradigm shift for many. TBT-S has five core principles derived from neurobiological research. (1) Eating disorders are brain and biologically based illnesses. (2) Treat to the trait or the temperament underpinnings. (3) Food is medicine. (4) Supports are needed and a necessary part of the treatment process. d (5) Action or movement is fundamental to change.

Anhedonia – a diminished interest in, or ability to experience pleasure from, common rewarding stimuli – is implicated in addictive behaviors. Integrative reviews of extant research on the role of anhedonia in understanding addictive behaviors are dated and overlook nonsubstance addictions. This chapter reviews the anhedonia construct, describes theoretical models of mechanisms linking anhedonia to addiction, summarizes and synthesizes the empirical evidence on anhedonia in addictive behaviors in humans, and proposes future research directions. From the literature review and integration, it is concluded that: (1) anhedonia may be a risk factor and consequence of addictive behaviors, (2) anhedonia may increase motivation to engage in addictive behaviors to offset deficient pleasure, and (3) anhedonia is generally correlated with onset, escalation, persistence, and relapse to a variety of addictive behaviors in prior research. Addictive agents, intervention applications, and other topics overlooked in the study of anhedonia in addictive behaviors warrant further inquiry to advance addiction science and practice.