The first contribution in this issue of Animal Welfare is the second of the newly instigated Invited Essays, written at the invitation of the editor and aimed at addressing contemporary welfare problems. It is by Robert Hubrecht, Assistant Director of UFAW and it examines the techniques involved in the genetic modification of animals, and considers the welfare implications and the relevance of the current UK legislation. These essays, which will be an occasional feature of the journal, are refereed by independent experts but very much represent the personal views of the authors. Hopefully some of the opinions expressed will stimulate readers to respond with constructive critical comments, which could be published in the journal's Letters section. The original author will of course have the right to reply.

Introduction

The first experiments in genetic engineering took place in the late sixties and early seventies, but animal transgenics (the insertion of DNA into the genome of an animal) really came of age with the production of mice whose genetic sequences contained a gene for human growth hormone (Palmiter et al 1982). Since then there has been a dramatic increase in the quantity of research into genetic modification, using various techniques. This has been largely driven by the potential medical and financial benefits of being able to modify animal and plant genomes (Carver et al 1993; Smith 1994; Stewart et al 1993).

During capture, in order to separate him from a possessive adult female and return him to his mother, a newborn male in a laboratory group of Cebus capucinus monkeys was found to have a seriously infected compound fracture of the humerus associated with a deep and extensive slash wound. Amputation of the affected limb was deemed necessary. Shortly after surgery the newborn was returned to his mother, in isolation from the group, with periodic removal for post-surgical care. Three weeks later the mother-newborn pair was returned to the social group and no further intervention occurred. Regular observations revealed mutual behavioural adjustments to the handicap by the mother and newborn. Compared to a normal age-mate, the amputee received more positive social attention from the mother and other group-members. Despite his showing delays in locomotor and manipulatory activities, the handicapped infant showed good behavioural progress. Early resocialization thus appears feasible following emergency surgery in newborn primates.

As part of a study into the effects of human activities on the welfare of free-living wildlife, the relative scale and severity of welfare problems in wild mammals and birds in Europe were investigated. Major cases were described and compared in terms of the nature and level of harm (pain, stress and fear) they cause, the duration of these effects and the number of individuals affected. The use of anticoagulant rodenticides, myxomatosis in rabbits, the poisoning of wildfowl by ingested lead shot, the contamination of seabirds with fuel oil, the effects of shooting, injuries due to collisions with road traffic and prédation by domestic cats all severely compromise the welfare of large numbers of animals. Practical approaches to the alleviation and prevention of some of these welfare problems are discussed. We suggest that in assessing the environmental impact of new developments and technologies prior to their implementation, possible consequences to wildlife welfare should always be considered.

This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the behaviour and productivity of pigs, in an attempt to assess changes in welfare. A total of 102 pigs were housed in either barren or enriched housing from birth to slaughter. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, an area which contained peat and straw in a rack. Enriching the environment reduced both the amount of time pigs spent inactive and the time involved in harmful social and aggressive behaviour. Tail biting was absent from the enriched environment but four pigs were removed from barren pens with severe tail damage. Pigs housed in enriched environments spent longer durations in exploratory behaviour than those in barren housing, and young pigs in enriched environments performed locomotory behaviour more frequently than their counterparts in barren environments. Overall growth rates were similar in both treatments. These results indicate that welfare is improved by enrichment with substrates and suggest that barren pens should be modified to provide these facilities.

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in significantly increased adrenal activity as well as significant changes in a variety of other physiological parameters. There is no scientific evidence that the animals adequately habituate to involuntary restraint. Numerous reports have been published demonstrating that non-human primates can readily be trained to cooperate rather than resist during common handling procedures such as capture, venipuncture, injection and veterinary examination. Cooperative animals fail to show behavioural and physiological signs of distress. It was concluded that the advantages of training techniques over traditional restraint techniques will have to be explored more extensively in the future for the sake of research subjects and scientific methodology.

In this paper social relationships (as defined by Hinde) between age/sex classes of kangaroos, wallabies and rat-kangaroos are reviewed and characterized by frequencies, direction and, where possible, intensity of behavioural interactions, by their patterning in sequences and by distance regulation. Male social organization in the wild for larger non-solitary species is organized in an age/size-related hierarchy. Frequent interactions among equal-sized males stabilize this hierarchy and large males by their simple presence deter younger ones from courting.

Depending on social organization in the wild, the presence of one or more males, sometimes males from different age classes, is desirable from the animal welfare standpoint.

The structure of breeding groups can be greatly improved in terms of welfare and breeding optimization, when a diversity of social relationships are as close to natural conditions as possible.

A questionnaire on methods of replacement and retention of pre-parturient vaginal prolapse, performed by the shepherd or veterinary surgeon, was completed by 108 veterinary undergraduate students after their farm experience as lambing assistants. The retention methods routinely employed included various suture patterns (72 replies; 66.7%), a plastic intravaginal retaining device (17.6%) and a truss (15.7%). In the sutured group, Buhner perivulval sutures, purse string perivulval sutures and horizontal mattress sutures had been used in 13 per cent, 46.4 per cent and 40.6 per cent of replies respectively. While 5mm nylon tape had been used for 52 of 72 (72.2%) procedures, autoclaved suture material had been used in only 29.6 per cent of replies. No analgesia was employed prior to placing the sutures in 40 (55.6%) replies. Frequent or pronounced abdominal straining by the ewe during replacement of the vaginal prolapse was observed by 69 of 108 respondents (63.9%). On a subjective basis 20 students (18.5%) considered that the welfare consequences of the procedure were a matter of concern and a further 40 students (37.0%) judged that the welfare consequences of the procedure were poor.

In 1989 the British Association for Shooting and Conservation, the British Field Sports Society and The Game Conservancy Trust produced between them, The Code of Good Shooting Practice. This has now been reissued in a 1994/5 amended edition.

Fifteen of the UK's largest medical charities have banded together to produce two discussion packs aimed at helping teachers to introduce the animal rights/animal welfare/biomedical research controversy to school discussion groups. One pack Animal Rights and Medical Research is directed towards sixth formers and other advanced students, whilst the other entitled Difficult Choices is intended for use with pupils aged 12 or older in their Research and Social Education (PSE) and/or English and Religious Education classes. Both packs are well produced and largely succeed in presenting their material in an interesting, straightforward and balanced manner.

In 1981 the Swiss Animal Protection Act came into force. It has become famous for its section on the housing of chickens. By prescribing sheltered, darkened nest boxes, perches or slatted grids for all hens and with a minimum area of 800cm2 per bird on mesh floors, it effectively prohibited the battery cage - this made Switzerland the first country to impose such a ban. For practical economic reasons the legislation granted farmers a ten-year transition period, expiring at the beginning of 1992.

This booklet gives the reader a brief insight into the lives of hedgehogs and their current status in Britain.

The New Zealand Animal Welfare advisory committee regularly produces codes of recommendations and minimum standards for the welfare of animals.

The following notes have largely been collated from the publishers ‘publicity material. A Report or full Review may appear in a subsequent issue of Animal Welfare.