The potential yields of demersal reefal and lagoonal finfish, which are valuable for trade or consumption in the Northern Province of New Caledonia, are unknown. Fishing pressure was estimated from tally-sheets of professional fishermen to assess trade fishing and a household consumption survey to assess subsistence fishing. Total yield was estimated to be 1326 tonnes in 1995, 94 % of which correspond to subsistence fishing. Most of the catches were taken from the east and west coasts; in the north zone (Bélep Archipelago) catches were very low. From this fishing pressure and the total stock values, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) was estimated to be 12600 t, which was about 10 % of the total stocks assessed in the Northern Province (138300 t). This MSY was dominated by five families, namely Lethrinidae, Acanthuridae, Scaridae, Serranidae and Lutjanidae. The results suggest that fishing effort in the Northern Province of New Caledonia could increase without endangering the stock. However, on a smaller geographical scale, some locations (Koné and Népoui on the west coast), reef habitats (near-reef areas) or species groups (fish caught by line) were already being intensively fished. Fishing techniques should be diversified so that part of the fishing effort be redirected toward the least heavily exploited groups of species and biotopes.

Under low signal-to-noise conditions, measurements of the acoustic backscattering cross-section σbs depend upon the position of the target in the beam. Split- and dual-beam measurements of σbs increase as the target moves away from the acoustic axis, leading to substantial overestimates of acoustic size for off-axis targets. We show how this phenomenon can be largely explained by measurement error in split-beam estimates of position, and by the effect of a minimum voltage threshold. We demonstrate a two-step correction to remove most of the bias. First, smoothed estimates of position are used to obtain an improved estimate of the beam directivity effect for each echo. Second, the statistical bias induced by the minimum voltage threshold is estimated and subtracted.

Estuary perch, Macquaria colonorum, is a truly estuarine species and spawns naturally in salt-wedged estuaries in salinities of 20–30. In this study, results on the changes in the total amino acids (TAA) (protein bound + free) and free amino acid (FAA) pools of developing eggs and newly hatched larvae until yolk-sac resorption were evaluated at four incubation salinities (15, 20, 25 and 30). The TAA in 1-h post-fertilised eggs ranged from 207.4 ± 2.2 to 231 ± 10 nmol·egg–1, at salinities of 20 and 15, respectively. The TAA content decreased significantly (P < 0.05) as development progressed. The FAA in eggs of estuary perch ranged from 35.5 ± 0.5 to 41.0 ± 0.9 nmol·egg–1 at salinities of 30 and 15, respectively, and accounted for 15.7–28.0 % of the TAA. In newly hatched larvae the TEAA accounted for between 42.0 and 43.2 % of the TAA. The FAA decreased significantly with development, it being reduced in yolk-sac resorbed larvae to 19, 16.2, 22.8 and 28.7 % of that of the original amount in fertilised eggs in salinities of 15, 20, 25 and 30, respectively. The FEAA in the FAA pool also decreased significantly with development, to approximately 33.7–35.3 % in yolk-sac resorbed larvae from that in fertilised eggs. The data suggest that estuary perch uses its FAA for energy dissipation during early ontogeny rather than for body protein synthesis. Overall, the amino acid profiles of estuary perch were close to that of pelagic eggs of marine fish, and there were no major influences of salinity on the amino acid profiles as development progressed.

A fuzzy logic model of tuna behaviour near Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) was developed to reproduce individual differences in horizontal movements observed from ultrasonic telemetry experiments. In this model, the behaviour of an individual is based on its surrounding environment (FADs and prey) and on its internal state (stomach fullness), which depends on its recent past actions. Internal sensors are used to determine the motivation of the fish, combined with external sensors, this determines its movements. Sensory information and motivation are modeled using fuzzy sets. A FAD attracts an individual when it is located within the FAD’s range of influence. The time spent near a FAD depends on the feeding motivation of the fish and on its surrounding environment. If the fish is not hungry, it stays near the FAD. Otherwise, the fish has to forage in order to eat, and might therefore leave the FAD if no prey is available in its vicinity. By varying the environmental conditions near FADs, the model reproduces the different horizontal movement patterns observed for tunas. The model is then extended to allow multiple individuals to co-exist, each individual modeled through the above behavioural model, without any direct or indirect interactions between them. This way, we study the effects of individual behaviour on tuna aggregation near FADs. We find that the model predicts the temporal dynamics of aggregation around FADs exhibited by tunas. By examining the effects of several FAD network models on the aggregation, we also estimate optimal spatial arrangements of FADs.

Radio tracking has been extensively used to enhance our knowledge on the movement and home range of fish in general and salmonids in particular. However, the use of various temporal sampling protocols is likely to overlook fish movements, and produce experimental artefacts, the amplitude of which is unknown and may compromise comparison of fish behaviours revealed by different protocols. Starting from a day-by-day tracking study of brown trout in Belgian waters (Aisne stream, nine fish, minimum 39 daily locations per fish), we re-examined their home range and mobility, through a subsampling process, as if the fish had been located at longer time intervals (2–14 days). The estimates from subsamples were compared to the original data set in order to quantify the corresponding reduction of accuracy from observed data, and how far this could be predicted on the basis of locating frequency. The results clearly indicate that all intervals longer than one day generally generate substantial biases (reduction of accuracy from 0 to 82% for home range and from 5 to 92% for mobility) but these can be partly corrected through the use of predictive models. This analysis demonstrates that any comparison between studies relying on different locating frequencies can generate some ambiguity when interpreting biological phenomena or geographical differences.

Split-beam positional estimates of fish detected in a river at close range often do not correspond to the actual position of the target. These inaccuracies create problems in determining whether a fish is moving upstream or downstream. We hypothesize that these positional estimates are degraded by two factors: size of target relative to beam diameter, and the complex scattering of the fish. These parameters create a near-field effect, within which the phase measurements of the returning echoes are corrupted. Examples of fish tracks from near and far range fish detected by a split-beam echo sounder are provided to illustrate these inaccuracies. Experimental data from tethered spheres and complex targets show increasing distortion with target complexity and proximity to the transducer.

In Hawaii, a variety of small- and medium-scale pelagic fisheries target fishing effort on a network of coastal moored FADs, natural inshore tuna aggregation points, offshore seamounts and offshore weather monitoring buoys. Large-scale longline vessels also operate in the Hawaii exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and beyond. These circumstances provide an ideal setting for tag-and-release experiments designed to elucidate the movement patterns, residence times, exchange rates and vulnerability of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) within the Hawaiian EEZ. Preliminary recapture data indicate that FADs, island reef ledges and seamounts exert an overwhelming influence on the catchability of tuna. Recapture rates from these locations vastly outweigh tag returns from open water areas. As of August 31, 1999, a total of l5387 bigeye and, yellowfin tuna ranging in size from 29 to 133 cm fork length (FL) and from 26 to143 cm FL respectively (mean 59.8 ± 14.1 cm; 58.4 ± 17.3 cm) have been tagged and released throughout the Hawaii EEZ. Recapture rates for both species have been similar with an overall recapture rate of l0.3 %. The location of tag releases reflects the importance of associative behavior and schooling to the vulnerability of tuna; seamounts and FADs accounted for 72.4 % and 23.5 % of all tag releases. Within the main Hawaiian Island group (excluding the offshore seamounts and buoys), 83.1 % of all recaptures have been made on anchored FADs and 11.9 % of recaptures have come from ledges or tuna aggregation areas close to the islands where bigeye and yellowfin tuna become vulnerable to hook and line gear. As these studies continue, additional and longer-term recaptures will provide increasingly detailed information on the movement patterns and vulnerability of bigeye and yellowfin tuna as they grow, move and recruit to different fisheries.

The cladocerans Moina micrura and Diaphanosoma excisum and the copepod Thermocyclops decipiens were studied in microcosms (0.8 m3) under semi-controlled experimental conditions at 25–29 °C for 32 days, by daily sampling after an initial monospecific inoculation. For each species, the time series began with an exponential population growth phase. M. micrura showed a higher daily population growth rate (mean = 1.19) than D. excisum (0.78) and T. decipiens (0.45). The growth phase of M. micrura coincided with bacterial and phytoplanktonic peaks while the growth phase of the two other species followed these peaks. After this phase, M. micrura quickly disappeared (day 10), while D. excisum biomass decreased but showed a second increase, followed by a stabilization sequence. T. decipiens biomass had a slower increase and stabilized after day 17. The passage to sexual reproduction in relation to crowding was the main regulating factor for M. micrura, whereas food limitation was important for D. excisum. For T. decipiens, population growth was limited by decreased recruitment to copepodite stages which could have resulted from cannibalism exerted by older stages.

The gametogenic cycle and the reproductive effort of the blacklip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, cultivated in Takapoto lagoon were studied for a 1-year period (March 1997–April 1998) by bimonthly observations of gonadal sections, dry tissue weights and gonadal index in a population of pearl oyster composed of three age-groups. Pearl oysters attained sexual maturity in the end of their first year (height ≈ 40 mm), implying that P. margaritifera is a late-maturing species in comparison with other Pteriidae. This species was also confirmed to be a marked protandrous successive hermaphrodite in culture, with 100 % of males at first maturity and 75 % in older pearl oyster (height > 120 mm). The general pattern of gametogenic activity, fairly synchronous in both sexes, was comparable with that of other tropical bivalves: reproduction occurs continuously throughout the year with a maximal activity during the warm season (November–May). No resting period was observed. Quantitative growth data showed that P. margaritifera exhibits an annual synchronised polymodal spawning pattern, with two spawning peaks in age-group I (height ≈ 70 mm) and five in age-groups II (height ≈ 100 mm) and III (height ≈ 120 mm). Spawning was sometimes incomplete, nevertheless a clear relationship between gamete production (PR, g) and size (height H, mm) was obtained: PR = 5.26 × 10–7 H2.91 (R[sup2 ] = 0.99, P < 0.05). Estimation of PR was used to calculate the annual reproductive effort in P. margaritifera. Reproductive effort (%) was similar to those calculated for temperate species and showed a progressive increase with the age of pearl oyster, from 7 % in age-group I to 38 % in age-group III. This study showed that, in a fairly stable tropical environment such as the Takapoto lagoon, P. margaritifera is a multiple spawner, which uses an opportunistic reproductive strategy, allowing investment, all year around, of any surplus energy into gamete production. Surplus energy is ensured by the high pumping rates developed by this non-symbiotic bivalve to succeed in low seston conditions.

From April 1995 to April 1996, the annual reproductive cycle of male Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis was studied at the Lindre Center (Moselle, France). At monthly intervals, five males (mean body weight of 133 ± 43 g and total length of 175 ± 9 mm) were caught. From sampled organs, the gonadosomatic (GSI), hepatosomatic (HSI) and viscerosomatic indexes (VSI) were calculated and plasma testosterone (T) and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) levels were measured. After the spawning period in mid-April, GSI and HSI dropped and VSI increased to 3.8 ± 0.1 %. In September, GSI reached its maximum (8.5 ± 1.8 %). At this time, spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa were abundant, whereas in June only spermatogonia were observed. During winter, GSI was stable at approximately 5 %, HSI reached its maximum (1.9 ± 0.3 %) and VSI was low (2.6 ± 0.2 %). From April to November 1995, plasma T and 11KT concentrations were low (< 0.5 ng·mL–1). Plasma T levels increased significantly in December and reached peak levels (12.3 ± 2.1 ng·mL–1) in January, then decreased in February and increased again until spawning in April (6.8 ± 2.1 ng·mL–1). This second elevation could be related to the beginning of a new spermatogenic cycle. Plasma levels of 11KT increased significantly from October to February 1996 (4.9 ± 1.1 ng·mL–1). From February to the spawning period (April 1996), plasma 11KT decreased significantly, but values were significantly higher than those measured in fall. Males were spermiating from January to spawning in April.

Whitish parasite-like bodies (PLBs), 0.5–2 μm in size, were detected within the pearl bag of some grafted pearl oysters, Pinctada margaritifera, from Takapoto island (French Polynesia). Histological and ultrastructural investigations have revealed that these bodies consisted of lamellar organic material locally secreted by some epithelial cells of the pearl bag. The fine structure and the formation of these bodies are described. The causes of this abnormal secretion of organic mater, which actually corresponds to periostracum, are not presently known. No parasite nor infectious micro-organism was found associated with the PLBs.

In order to demonstrate the involvement of nitric oxide in the defence systems of marine bivalves, we investigated the production of superoxide and nitrite, following in vitro phorbol myristate acetate stimulation of Mytilus galloprovincialis, Crassostrea gigas and Ruditapes decussatus haemocytes. Whereas M. galloprovincialis and C. gigas haemocytes were found to produce superoxide and nitrite, R. decussatus haemocytes were found to be unable to generate either of these mediators. Nitrite is a stable end product of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite as well; it appeared therefore that some marine bivalves, to kill microbial pathogens, use NADPH-oxidase and nitric oxide-synthase pathways. This was confirmed at an experimental level where inhibitors of both enzymatic pathways blocked the production of nitrite. Moreover, this notion was strengthened by the inability of the haemocytes from R. decussatus, which cannot produce superoxide, to release nitrite when stimulated.

The potential of carp pituitary powder (CPP) at one dose, or the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) analogue, des–Gly10,(D–Ala6)–LH-RH–ethylamide, at three different doses to stimulate spermiation in paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) was tested. Single injections of the LH-RH analogue at 0.2, 0.1, or 0.05 mg·kg–1 increased the number of spermatozoa per kilogram of body weight (kg–1 b.w.) by 4.7, 3.4, and 3.4 times respectively compared to control, but the number of spermatozoa per kilogram of body weight decreased with CPP (4 mg·kg–1) by 1.7 times compared to the control. The LH-RH analogue prolonged active spermiation, with numbers of spermatozoa ranging from 7.69 to 1.19 × 109 kg–1 b.w. up to 96 h after treatment. Analysis of variance showed significant influence of experimental groups on volume of sperm per male and per kilogram of body weight, and the total number of spermatozoa per kilogram of body weight, but insignificant influence on the total number of spermatozoa per male. The percentage of motile spermatozoa was not different between experimental groups for sperm collection at different times after injection. A very high positive correlation (r = 0.93) was obtained between sperm concentration and sperm transmittance measured with a spectrophotometer. This relationship was described with the following linear regression: sperm concentration (× 109 mL–1) = 1.3244 X–0.9969, where X is the percentage of sperm transmittance.

Yellowfin and bigeye tunas (Thunnus albacores and Thunnus obesus) were tagged and released between August 1995 and December 1997 at Cross Seamount and NOAA weather buoys about 200 Nmi south of Honolulu. The release and recapture data were stratified into five sites, and a bulk transfer model was used to estimate natural mortality, fishing mortality and transfer rates between the five sites. Bigeye are much more persistent at Cross seamount and less vulnerable to the fishery than yellowfin. Fishing accounts for about 5 % of the total mortality of both bigeye and yellowfin at Cross Seamount. Yellowfin are a major component of catches at inshore FADs in Hawaii. The rate of immigration from Cross Seamount to the inshore FADs is very low for both species. The fishing mortality at Cross seamount is substantial but is not adversely impacting the populations either at Cross or the inshore FADs.

Hydroacoustic split-beam techniques have been applied to enumerate salmon migrating in the river Tana (northern Norway) during the summers 1998 and 1999. Analysing data by single echo detection and tracking was difficult. Missing echoes in tracks from fish, combined with noise in the output from the single echo detector was seen as reasons for this. An improved counting method is presented. Contours from moving targets are detected by image analysis. Then, detected single echoes within these contours are combined into tracks. This procedure reduces problems related to noise, and to tracking fish with few accepted single echoes.

The effect of feeding time was studied in rainbow trout fed different dietary levels of fat. Fish were fed either 1 h after light on in the morning or 1 h after light off in the evening with a low energy diet (LE, 6 % lipid) or a high energy diet (HE, 23 % lipid). Regardless of the diet, apparent digestibility and post-prandial protein synthesis were higher in fish fed in the morning than in those fed at the beginning of the night. In fish fed the LE diet in the morning, growth performance and nutrient retention efficiency tended to be higher than in those fed at the beginning of the night. In contrast, fish fed the HE diet in the morning had lower protein growth rate, protein content and protein retention efficiency than those fed in the evening. These results suggest that protein metabolism might be involved in the effect of feeding time on growth and that there is an interaction between the time of feeding and dietary level of fat on growth.

Pirapatinga given submaximal rations grow faster when fed at night than when fed during daylight hours. It was hypothesised that these fish were day–night conformers, with a nocturnal acrophase, and expended more energy during daytime feeding. In order to test this hypothesis, telemetry was applied to study the behaviour of cultured pirapatinga (stocking biomass of 40 kg·m–3; 27 ± 1 °C; 6 mg O2·L–1; 13.5 L/10.5 D) under three feeding schedules (diurnal versus nocturnal feeding [12 g·d–1·fish–1 over 10 h] versus fasting) that were evaluated in succession over 1 week each. This implied a feasibility study to test the adequacy of tagging fish with surgically implanted transmitters (ventrolateral incision, posterior to the pelvic girdle). There was no mortality or tag loss over 12 months following surgery, and abdominal incisions healed within 4 weeks. Under all three feeding schedules, activity increased at dawn, peaked during daytime, decreased at twilight and reached a minimum during the late night. Diurnal and twilight activity levels were similar under all three schedules, whereas nocturnal activity was significantly lower with daytime feeding. These observations indicate that pirapatinga have a diurnal activity acrophase, which is little influenced by food availability, and imply that the higher growth of fish fed at night does not originate from lower energetic expenditures.

This paper critically reviews the theoretical and practical implications of adopting the original ‘ecological footprint’ concept as an index of the sustainability of aquaculture production systems. It is argued that the concept may provide a reasonable visioning tool to demonstrate natural resource dependence of human activities to politicians and the public at large. However, due to its inherent weaknesses, the ‘ecological footprint’ fails to provide a cohesive analytical tool for management. From an ecological perspective, its two-dimensional interpretation of complex ecologically and economically interacting systems is one major weakness. From an economic perspective, the ‘footprint’ fails to recognise factors such as consumer preferences and property rights which have a major influence on the allocation and sustainable use of resources. The interactions among social, ecological and economic factors are discussed in an attempt to foster a broader inter-disciplinary view of criteria required for a sustainable use of aquatic resources.

Since 1991, fishing operations on tuna schools associated with drifting Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) have become widespread in the purse seine fishery in the Gulf of Guinea. In the offshore South Sherbro area (0–5° N, 10–20° W), FAD-associated catches represent about 75 % of the total catch. This FAD fishery exploits concentrations of skipjack mixed with a smaller amount of bigeye and yellowfin tuna of similar size (46 cm), and some large yellowfin. Catches on unassociated tuna schools are mainly composed of large yellowfin in breeding phase and skipjack. Here we studied tuna diet in relation with the aggregation mode (FAD-associated or unassociated tuna schools), species, and size. The stomach contents of around 800 fish were analysed. Numerous empty stomachs were found, especially in fish caught under FADs. Diets were similar for all small-size tuna sharing the same aggregation type. Small tuna mainly feed on Vinciguerria nimbaria (Photichthyidae), a mesopelagic fish of the micronekton, whereas large tuna mainly feed on Scombridae, mixed with Cubiceps pauciradiatus (Nomeidae) when they were caught in unassociated schools. The feeding habits of tuna are discussed with emphasis on the behavior of V. nimbaria. Estimations of the daily ration of similarly sized tuna with the same aggregation mode were very close. The low estimated rations for small, FAD-associated tuna show that logs do not have a trophic function, but rather are a refuge. In contrast, FADs seem to influence the diet of large tuna because of the Scombridae prey that probably is associated to the FAD.

Shallow water studies of fish behavior have used various methods for tracking fish. A new technique is shown to be promising because it can combine acoustic sizing with fish behavior studies. The principle of radar tracking, aligning the antenna beam with a target, was applied with an acoustic splitbeam transducer and dual-axis rotators for tracking individual fish over long periods of time. Deviation of the target from the beam axis produces a correction to point the axis toward the target. Initial studies with active acoustics have also evolved an acoustic tag tracking method. The system has successfully tracked several different types of fish, from juvenile salmon to sharks. The high speed of the rotators allows observations to be made at very short ranges. Much of the development of the tracking transducer targeted fish movement through dams on the Columbia and Snake Rivers. In a recent experiment, adult salmon, returning to the Fraser River, Canada were tracked to measure avoidance to surveying vessels. The feasibility for tracking sharks was shown at the Tacoma WA Point Defiance Aquarium. A proposed method for tracking salmon, sharks or other species with echoes and/or using acoustic tags will allow the determination of behavior, acoustic size, abundance, and associated pelagic assemblages.