Calvinism as an historical movement was exceedingly complex. It was a phenomenon in which theology, economic theory, political philosophy, and a general cultural orientation were inextricably mixed and applied in an intense effort to refashion society into a Holy Commonwealth. In attempting to interpret this movement, as Sidney E. Mead has pointed out, “one is always in danger either of trying to do complete justice to the complexity and landing in a confusing incoherence and lack of clarity, or of seizing upon one interpretative theme in the interest of clarity and landing in over-simplification.” Most of the discussions of Calvinism, in any or all of its various manifestations, have avoided the first alternative—falling into the morass of confusion and incoherence—but many have succumbed to the second—an over-simplification that is definitely misleading.

During the years of their greatest tribulation, English Protestant dissenters were steadily buoyed up by numerous efforts in their behalf; stemming from various sources, these efforts were inspired by motives equally various. Gestures toward a peaceful settlement actually began before Charles II ascended the throne. Little persecution marked the Cromwellian regime and although the Establishment had possessed a Presbyterian tinge, organized Presbyterianism had made little headway. The Church was rather an assemblage of congregations than a compact hierarchy. While Episcopalians had been forced from their livings, many did not appear vindictive, and as the Restoration approached, a tolerant mood seemed uppermost.