The extent to which persistent, rather than transient, fissures (wide planar voids) can exist along upper crustal faults is important in assessing fault permeability to mineral and hydrocarbon-bearing fluids. Variscan (late Carboniferous) faults cutting Dinantian (Lower Carboniferous) limestones on the Gower peninsula, South Wales, host clear evidence for fissures up to several metres wide. Evidence includes dendritic hematite growth and elongate calcite growth into open voids, spar ball and cockade breccia formation, laminated sediment infill and void-collapse breccias. Detailed mapping reveals cross-cutting geometries and brecciation of earlier fissure fills, showing that fissures were formed during, rather than after, active faulting. Fissures therefore probably formed by geometric mismatch between displaced fault walls, rather than by solution widening along inactive faults.

Ductile sheared rocks of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline unit (HHC) in micro-scale reveal flanking microstructures defined by nucleated minerals (the cross-cutting elements, CEs), and deflected cleavages and grain margins (the host fabric elements, HEs) of other minerals. Depending on different or the same senses of drag across the cross-cutting elements, the flanking microstructures are grouped into Type 1 or Type 2 varieties, respectively. Cross-cutting elements of Type 2 flanking microstructures connote post-tectonic directional growth. The cross-cutting elements of the Type 1 flanking microstructures consistently demonstrate top-to-SW non-coaxial shearing in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline unit. Here the external host fabric elements bounding the cross-cutting elements act as the C-planes. These cross-cutting element minerals are usually parallelogram-shaped, underwent crystal-plastic deformation and their nucleations are pre- or syntectonic. The facts that the host fabric elements are dragged even in absence of rheological softening at the boundaries of the cross-cutting elements, and that the cross-cutting elements are non-rigid, indicate strong bonds between the host fabric elements and the cross-cutting elements. Salient morphological variations in the flanking microstructures are: (1) variable intensity and senses of drag along the single and the opposite cross-cutting element margins; (2) host fabric elements defined only at one side of the cross-cutting elements; and (3) presence of a thin hazy zone at the HE–CE contacts. The observed cross-cutting element minerals are either of nearly the same or of greater competency than the mineral grains which host them.

Flood basalts in associated volcanic rifted margins, such as the North Atlantic Igneous Province, have a significant component of lavas which are preserved in the present day in an offshore setting. A close inspection of the internal facies architecture of flood basalts onshore provides a framework to interpret the offshore sequences imaged by remote techniques such as reflection seismology. A geological interpretation of the offshore lava sequences in the Faroe–Shetland Basin, using constraints from onshore analogues such as the Faroe Islands, allows for the identification of a series of lava sequences which have characteristic properties so that they can be grouped. These are tabular simple flows, compound-braided flows, and sub-aqueously deposited hyaloclastite facies. The succession of volcanic rocks calculated in this study has a maximum thickness in excess of 6800 m. Down to the top of the sub-volcanic sediments, the offshore volcanic succession has a thickness of about 2700 m where it can be clearly identified across much of the area, with a further 2700 m or more of volcanic rock estimated from the combined gravity and seismic modelling to the north and west of the region. A large palaeo-waterbody is identified on the basis of a hyaloclastite front/apron consisting of a series of clinoforms prograding towards the eastern part of the basin. This body was > 500 m deep, must have been present at the onset of volcanism into this region, and parts of the water body would have been present during the continued stages of volcanism as indicated by the distribution of the hyaloclastite apron.

Analyses of structures in the western part of the North Patagonian Massif (southern Argentina) suggest a polyphase evolution, accompanied by continuous intrusive activity. The first two deformations (D1, D2) and metamorphism affected the upper Palaeozoic, partly possibly older Cushamen Formation clastic succession and different intrusive rocks. A second group of intrusions, emplaced after the second deformational episode (D2), in many places contain angular xenoliths of the foliated country rocks, indicating high intrusive levels with brittle fracturing of the crust. Deformation of these magmatic rocks presumably began during (the final stage of) cooling and continued under solid-state conditions. It probably coincided with the third deformational event (D3) in the country rocks. Based on published U–Pb zircon ages of deformed granitoids, the D2-deformation and younger event along with the regional metamorphism are likely to be Permian in age. An onset of the deformational and magmatic history during Carboniferous times, however, cannot be excluded. The estimated ~W–E to NE–SW compression during the D2-deformation, also affecting the first group of intrusive rocks, can be related to subduction beneath the western Patagonia margin or an advanced stage of collisional tectonics within extra-Andean Patagonia. The younger ~N–S to NE–SW compression might have been an effect of oblique subduction in the west and/or continuing collision-related deformation. As a cause for its deviating orientation, younger block rotations during strike-slip faulting cannot be excluded. The previous D2-event presumably also had an effect on compression at the northern Patagonia margin that was interpreted as result of Patagonia's late Palaeozoic collision with the southwestern Gondwana margin. With the recently proposed Carboniferous subduction and collision south of the North Patagonian Massif, the entire scenario might suggest that Patagonia consists of two different pieces that were amalgamated with southwestern Gondwana during Late Palaeozoic times.

The incomplete Evros ophiolites in NE Greece form a NE–SW-oriented discontinuous belt in the Alpine orogen of the north Aegean. Field data, petrology and geochemistry are presented here for the intrusive section and associated mafic dykes of these ophiolites. Bodies of high-level isotropic gabbro and plagiogranite in the ophiolite suite are cross-cut by NE–SW-trending boninitic and tholeiitic–boninitic affinity dykes, respectively. The dykes fill tensile fractures or faults, which implies dyke emplacement in an extensional tectonic regime. The tholeiitic–transitional boninitic gabbro is REE- and HFS-depleted relative to N-MORB, indicating derivation from melting of a refractory mantle peridotite source. Associated boninitic dykes are slightly LREE-enriched, showing mineral and whole-rock geochemistry similar to the gabbro. The plagiogranite is a strongly REE-enriched high-silica trondhjemite, with textures and composition typical for an oceanic crust differentiate. Plagiogranite-hosted tholeiitic and transitional boninitic dykes are variably REE-enriched. Geochemical modelling indicates origin of the plagiogranite by up to 75 % fractional crystallization of basaltic magma similar to that producing the associated tholeiitic dykes. All mafic rocks have high LILE/HFSE ratios and negative Ta–Nb–Ti and Ce anomalies, typical for subduction zone-related settings. The mafic rocks show a similar trace-element character to the mafic lavas of an extrusive section in Bulgaria, suggesting they both form genetically related intrusive and extrusive suites of the Evros ophiolites. The field occurrence, the structural context, the petrology and geochemical signature of the studied magmatic assemblage provide evidence for its origin in a proto-arc (fore-arc) tectonic setting, thus tracing the early stages of the tectono-magmatic evolution of Jurassic arc-marginal basin system that has generated the supra-subduction type Evros ophiolites.

New material of dsungaripterid pterosaurs from the Early Cretaceous of Tatal, western Mongolia, allows the diagnoses of Dsungaripteridae and Noripterus to be amended. All pterosaurs found at Tatal belong to Dsungaripteridae (either Dsungaripterus or Noripterus). The name Phobetor is a junior synonym of Noripterus. The differing shapes of the anterior tips of skulls, differing tooth morphologies and the coexistence of both Dsungaripterus and Noripterus may imply that they occupied distinct ecological niches.

The Miocene dolomite-chert microbialites studied here offer a complete record of the geochemical cycles of silicate weathering and the subsequent formation of secondary products. The microbialites were formed in lacustrine systems during the Miocene of the Duero Basin, central Spain. Mineralogical, chemical and petrographic results provide evidence of the mediation of microbes in early weathering and by-product formation processes. Irrespective of the composition, the surfaces of the grains were subject to microbial attachment and concomitant weathering. Palaeo-weathering textures range from surface etching and pitting to extensive physical disaggregation of the minerals. Extreme silicate weathering led to the complete destruction of the silicate grains, whose prior existence is inferred from pseudomorphs exhibiting colonial textures like those recognized in the embedding matrix. Detailed petrographic and microanalytical examinations of the weathering effects in K-feldspars show that various secondary products with diverse crystallinity and chemical composition can coexist in the interior of a mineral. The coexistence of by-products is indicative of different microenvironmental conditions, likely created by microbial reactions. Thus, the presence of varied secondary products can be used as a criterion of biogenicity. Intensive alteration of P-bearing feldspars suggests that mineral weathering may have been driven by the nutrient requirements of the microbial consortium involved in the precipitation of dolomite. The rock record provides useful information on mineral weathering mediated by microbes.

The Rum Igneous Centre comprises two early marginal felsic complexes (the Northern Marginal Zone and the Southern Mountains Zone), along with the later central ultrabasic–basic layered intrusions. These marginal complexes represent the remnants of near-surface to eruptive felsic magmatism associated with caldera collapse, examples of which are rare in the North Atlantic Igneous Province. Rock units include intra-caldera collapse breccias, rhyolitic ignimbrite deposits and shallow-level felsic intrusions, as well the enigmatic ‘Am Màm intrusion breccia’. The latter comprises a dacitic matrix enclosing lobate basaltic inclusions (~1–15 cm) and a variety of clasts, ranging from millimetres to tens of metres in diameter. These clasts comprise Lewisian gneiss, Torridonian sandstone and coarse gabbro. Detailed re-mapping of the Am Màm intrusion breccia has shown its timing of emplacement as syn-caldera, rather than pre-caldera as previously thought. Textural analysis of entrained clasts and adjacent, uplifted country rocks has revealed their thermal metamorphism by early mafic intrusions at greater depth than their present structural position. These findings provide a window into the evolution of the early mafic magmas responsible for driving felsic magmatism on Rum. Our data help constrain some of the physical parameters of this early magma–crust interaction and place it within the geochemical evolution of the Rum Centre.

The presence of major crystalline basement provinces at depth in NW Ireland is inferred from in situ Hf isotope analysis of zircons from granitoid rocks that cut structurally overlying metasedimentary rocks. Granitoids in two of these units, the Slishwood Division and the Tyrone Central Inlier, contain complex zircons with core and rim structures. In both cases, cores have average ϵHf values that differ from the average ϵHf values of the rims at 470 Ma (the time of granitoid intrusion). The Hf data and similarity in U–Pb age between the inherited cores and detrital zircons from the host metasedimentary rocks suggests local contamination during intrusion rather than transport of the grains from the source region at depth. Rims from the Slishwood Division intrusions have average ϵHf470 values of −7.7, consistent with a derivation from juvenile Palaeoproterozoic crust, such as the Annagh Gneiss Complex or Rhinns Complex of NW Ireland, implying that the deep crust underlying the Slishwood Division is made of similar material. Rims from the Tyrone Central Inlier have extremely negative ϵHf470 values of approximately −39. This isotopic signature requires an Archaean source, suggesting rocks similar to the Lewisian Complex of Scotland, or sediment derived wholly from it, occurs at depth in NW Ireland.

New chitinozoan data are presented from the classical section along the Onny River in the type Caradoc area, and from the deeper-water sections in the Shelve area, including the former British candidate GSSP for the base of the Upper Ordovician Series. The rich and well-preserved chitinozoan fauna of the Onny River has been a standard for 40 years, but new data revise some of the identifications. The assemblages are now attributed to biozones that are more readily applicable for international correlation. The main part of the section can be interpreted as belonging to the originally Baltoscandian Spinachitina cervicornis Biozone, although this is uncertain in the lower part. Within this biozone, the Fungochitina actonica Subzone has been defined. The Onny Formation at the top of the section is equated with the Acanthochitina latebrosa–Ancyrochitina onniensis Biozone; contrary to earlier reports, Acanthochitina barbata is absent. The Lower Wood Brook and Spy Wood Brook section from the Shelve Inlier yielded a great number of moderately to well-preserved chitinozoans, but a low-diversity assemblage. Their ranges have been neatly positioned against the well-known graptolite stratigraphy in the area. A local Eisenackitina rhenana Biozone? has been recognized, allowing us to suggest some international correlations.

A growing body of literature is using sclerochronological information to infer past climates. Sclerochronologies are based on series of skeletal growth records of molluscs that have been correctly aligned in time. Incremental series are obtained from a number of shells to assess the temporal control and improve the climate signal in the final chronology. Much of the sclerochronological theory has been adopted from tree-ring science, due to the longer tradition and more firmly established concepts of chronology construction in dendrochronology. Compared to tree-ring studies, however, sclerochronological datasets are often characterized by relatively small sample size. Here we evaluate how effectively palaeoclimatic signal can be extracted from such a suite of samples. In so doing, the influences of the very basic methods that are applied in nearly every sclerochronological study to remove the non-climatic growth variability prior to palaeoclimatic interpretations, are ranked by their capability to amplify the desired signal. The study is performed in the context of six shells that constitute a bicentennial growth record from annual shell increments of freshwater pearl mussel. It was shown that when the individual series were detrended using the models set by the mean or the median summary curves for ageing (that is, applying Regional Curve Standardization, RCS), instead of fitting the ageing mode statistically to each series, the resulting sclerochronology displayed more low-frequency variability. Consistently, the added low-frequency variability evoked higher proxy–climate correlations. These results show the particular benefit of using the RCS method to develop sclerochronologies and preserve their low-frequency variations. Moreover, calculating the ageing curve and the final chronology by median, instead of mean, resulted in an amplified low-frequency climate signal. The results help to answer a growing need to better understand the behaviour of the sclerochronological data. In addition, we discuss the pitfalls that may potentially disrupt palaeoclimate signal detection in similar sclerochronological studies. Pitfalls may arise from shell taphonomy, water chemistry, time-variant characters of biological growth trends and small sample size.

Two types of metasedimentary rocks occur in the Trans-North China Orogen of the North China Craton. One type consists of highly metamorphosed supracrustal rocks with protoliths of mature cratonic shale, called khondalites, as found in the Lüliang Complex; rocks of the other type are also highly metamorphosed but less mature, as represented by the Wanzi supracrustal assemblage in the Fuping Complex. U–Pb isotopic data for detrital zircons from khondalites show a provenance dominated by 1.9–2.1 Ga Palaeoproterozoic rocks. These detrital zircons display a wide range of εHf values from −16.0 to +9.2 and give Hf isotopic model ages mostly around 2.3 Ga. The high positive εHf values approach those for the depleted mantle at 2.1 Ga, highlighting a juvenile crustal growth event in Palaeoproterozoic times. Hf isotopic data also imply that c. 2.6 Ga old crustal material was involved in the Palaeoproterozoic magmatic event. These data are similar to those for the khondalitic rocks from the interior of the Western Block of the North China Craton, suggesting a common provenance. In contrast, other metasedimentary rocks in the Trans-North China Orogen, such as the Wanzi supracrustal assemblage in the Fuping Complex, have a source region with both Palaeoproterozoic and Archaean rocks. Their detrital zircon Hf isotopic data indicate reworking of old crustal material and a lack of significant juvenile Palaeoproterozoic magmatic input. These rocks are similar to the coevally deposited meta-sedimentary rocks in the interior of the Eastern Block. We propose that the Lüliang khondalites were deposited on the eastern margin of the Western Block in a passive continental margin environment and were thrust eastward later during collision with the Eastern Block. Other metasedimentary rocks in the Trans-North China Orogen were deposited on the western margin of the Eastern Block in a continental arc environment. Our data support the eastward subduction model for the Palaeoproterozoic tectonic evolution of the North China Craton.

Dinoflagellate cysts and sequence stratigraphy are used to date accurately the Tunnel-Canal Dock section, which contains the most complete record of marine Pliocene deposits in the Antwerp harbour area. The Zanclean Kattendijk Formation was deposited between 5.0 and 4.4 Ma during warm-temperate conditions on a shelf influenced by open-marine waters. The overlying Lillo Formation is divided into four members. The lowest is the Luchtbal Sands Member, estimated to have been deposited between 3.71 and 3.21 Ma, under cooler conditions but with an open-water influence. The Oorderen Sands, Kruisschans Sands and Merksem Sands members of the Lillo Formation are considered a single depositional sequence, and biostratigraphically dated between 3.71 and c. 2.6 Ma, with the Oorderen Sands Member no younger than 2.72–2.74 Ma. Warm-temperate conditions had returned, but a cooling event is noted within the Oorderen Sands Member. Shoaling of the depositional environment is also evidenced, with the transgressive Oorderen Sands Member passing upwards into (near-)coastal high-stand deposits of the Kruisschans Sands and Merksem Sands members, as accommodation space decreased. Applying sequence stratigraphy to our section implies that the Kattendijk/Lillo Formation boundary corresponds to the sequence boundary (SB) Za2 (4.04 Ma), the Luchtbal/Oorderen sands boundary to SB Pia1 (3.21 Ma), and the top of the Merksem Sands to SB Pia2 (2.76 Ma). Finally, the Belgian deposits are compared with marine Pliocene deposits of eastern England.

A series of boreholes in Horton Quarry, northwest Yorkshire (Horton-in-Ribblesdale Inlier) penetrated mudstones and slates belonging to the Austwick Formation (Windermere Supergroup) overlying laminated mudstones of the Ingleton Group. Illite (IC) and chlorite (ChC) crystallinity measurements indicate a metamorphic inversion between the two groups of mudrocks. The Windermere Supergroup mudrocks are mostly in the high anchizone or epizone, whereas the Ingletonian samples are lower grade in terms of IC, and are mostly deep diagenetic zone or low anchizone. Hence younger strata at higher grades rest on older strata at lower grades, creating a metamorphic inversion. Ingletonian slates exposed at Pecca Falls on the River Twiss show epizonal and anchizonal IC values, and greywacke samples from Ingleton Quarry contain pumpellyite. This suggests that grade in the Ingletonian may increase to the NW from the Horton to Ingleton inliers. K-white mica b cell dimensions show further differences between the Ingleton Group and the Windermere Supergroup. The Ingletonian samples are characterized by low b cell values (8.989–9.035, mean 9.007 Å), whereas the Windermere Supergroup has higher values in the range 9.022–9.034, mean 9.027 Å. The Windermere Supergroup values are similar to those recorded from the Windermere Supergroup of the southern Lake District, and Lower Palaeozoic rocks from the Scottish Southern Uplands, and are consistent with metamorphism in a low heat flow, convergent geotectonic setting. The Ingletonian b cell values suggest metamorphism in a higher heat flow setting, most likely an extensional basin. The metamorphic inversion at Horton and differences in K-white mica b cell dimensions suggest that the Ingleton Group and Windermere Supergroup strata evolved in different geotectonic settings and record two separate metamorphic events. The discovery of the metamorphic inversion at Horton provides further evidence in favour of an Ordovician rather than Neoproterozoic depositional age for the controversial Ingleton Group.

Sr and Nd isotope ratios, together with lithophile trace elements, have been measured in a representative set of igneous rocks and Lewisian gneisses from the Isle of Rum in order to unravel the petrogenesis of the felsic rocks that erupted in the early stages of Palaeogene magmatism in the North Atlantic Igneous Province (NAIP). The Rum rhyodacites appear to be the products of large amounts of melting of Lewisian amphibolite gneiss. The Sr and Nd isotopic composition of the magmas can be explained without invoking an additional granulitic crustal component. Concentrations of the trace element Cs in the rhyodacites strongly suggests that the gneiss parent rock had experienced Cs and Rb loss prior to Palaeogene times, possibly during a Caledonian event. This depletion caused heterogeneity with respect to 87Sr/86Sr in the crustal source of silicic melts. Other igneous rock types on Rum (dacites, early gabbros) are mixtures of crustal melts and and primary mantle melts. Forward Rare Earth Element modelling shows that late stage picritic melts on Rum are close analogues for the parent melts of the Rum Layered Suite, and for the mantle melts that caused crustal anatexis of the Lewisian gneiss. These primary mantle melts have close affinities to Mid-Oceanic Ridge Basalts (MORB), whose trace element content varies from slightly depleted to slightly enriched. Crustal anatexis is a common process in the rift-to-drift evolution during continental break-up and the formation of Volcanic Rifted Margins systems. The ‘early felsic–later mafic’ volcanic rock associations from Rum are compared to similar associations recovered from the now-drowned seaward-dipping wedges on the shelf of SE Greenland and on the Vøring Plateau (Norwegian Sea). These three regions show geochemical differences that result from variations in the regional crustal composition and the depth at which crustal anatexis took place.

The Xiaofangshen mafic stock is a hornblende gabbroic body emplaced in the Faku dome of northern Liaoning within the continental interior of the North China–Mongolian plate. Zircon U–Pb SHRIMP dating yields an emplacement age of 241 ± 6 Ma. These gabbroic rocks exhibit strong enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (e.g. Th, U) and light REE, slightly negative Eu anomalies, and pronounced depletion in high field strength elements (e.g. Nb, Ta, Zr, Ti). They show a relatively narrow range of isotopic compositions with initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7053 to 0.7055, ϵNd(t) values of +0.40 to +0.68 and zircon ϵHf(T) values from +5.0 to +7.4. These geochemical features suggest that they might have been derived from partial melting of a subduction-related metasomatized lithospheric mantle source, which is tectonically affiliated to the Xing-Meng orogenic belt. Combined with our previous geochronological dating on the predominantly granitic intrusions from the Faku dome, it is inferred that the northern Liaoning block has a tectonic affinity with the Phanerozoic accretionary orogenic belt. This revelation further leads to the proposition that the Chifeng–Kaiyuan fault likely represents the Mesozoic lithospheric boundary between the North China craton and the Xing-Meng orogenic belt in northern Liaoning. The Xiaofangshen gabbros, together with the Triassic mafic–ultramafic cumulates and granulite xenoliths and the Triassic alkaline intrusions within the continental interior of the newly amalgamated North China–Mongolian Plate, constitute an important post-orogenic to within-plate anorogenic magmatic province, in response to the continued magmatic underplating caused by lithospheric delamination and hot asthenosphere upwelling.

Pterosaur teeth from the Early Cretaceous Lagerstätte of Las Hoyas (Spain) are described. We reassess the track from this site previously ascribed to a pterosaur, concluding that it is a theropod footprint. The teeth belong to two pterodactyloid taxa: a basal Istiodactylidae similar to Haopterus and an indeterminate Ornithocheiridae. From a palaeoecological point of view, the occurrence of such pterosaurs in the freshwater wetland palaeobiota of Las Hoyas strengthens the evidence of the similarity of this Spanish locality to the famous Early Cretaceous Lagerstätten of Liaoning in China.

The Southern Mountains Zone of the Rum Central Complex lies inside a major ring fault and comprises an intricate association of country-rock outcrops, breccias and rhyodacite. The breccias and rhyodacite were long thought to be products of subterranean explosion and intrusion, respectively. Here, we report new observations that support re-interpretation of these units as mass movement deposits and ignimbrites. The most abundant breccias (Coire Dubh-type) consist mainly of country-rock clasts <1 m in diameter in a sand or silt matrix. Internally bedded and graded, and interlayered with sandstones and lithic tuffs, these breccias are interpreted as debris flow and stream flow deposits. Rhyodacite sheets show gradational or sharp, concordant contacts with Coire Dubh-type breccias, and display graded basal lithic tuffs and graded fiamme swarms. These sheets are interpreted as moderately to densely welded rhyodacite ignimbrites (25–100 m thick). A steep body of fragmented (fiamme-bearing) rhyodacite with intrusive non-fragmented contacts is interpreted as an ignimbrite vent system. The rhyodacite and breccia succession is over 200 m thick and unconformably overlies a structurally uplifted Precambrian basement, within which there is also evidence of later subsidence. Outcrops of potential caldera-collapse ‘megabreccia’ are more structurally consistent than previously thought, and are re-interpreted here as coherent segments of Precambrian country rock (caldera floor). The Southern Mountains Zone breccias and rhyodacites respectively reflect sedimentary and pyroclastic processes acting in response to a complex tectonic interplay of intrusion-related uplift and caldera subsidence.

The discovery of a fossiliferous interval (Altona Formation, new unit) under the Potsdam Formation requires a new geological synthesis of a large part of the northeast Laurentian craton. Potsdam sandstones can no longer be regarded as the oldest sedimentary unit on the middle Proterozoic Grenville orogen in northern New York and adjacent Quebec and Ontario. The thickest Potsdam sections (to 750 m) in the east Ottawa–Bonnechere aulocogen have been explained by deposition with normal faulting possibly associated with Ediacaran rifting (c. 570 Ma) that led to formation of the Iapetus Ocean. However, sparse trilobite faunas show a terminal early Cambrian–middle middle Cambrian age of the Altona, and indicate much later marine transgression (c. 510 Ma) of the northeast Laurentian craton. Altona deposition was followed by rapid accumulation of lower Potsdam (Ausable Member) sandstone in the middle–late middle Cambrian. The Altona–Ausable succession is probably conformable. The Altona is a lower transgressive systems tract unit deposited on the inner shelf (sandstone, reddish mudstone, and carbonates) followed by aggradation and the deposition of highstand systems tract, current cross-bedded, in part terrestrial(?), feldspathic Ausable sandstone. Unexpectedly late Altona transgression and rapid Ausable deposition may reflect renewed subsidence in the Ottawa–Bonnechere aulocogen with coeval (terminal early Cambrian) faulting that formed the anoxic Franklin Basin on the Vermont platform. Thus, the oldest cover units on the northeast New York–Quebec craton record late stages in a cooling history near an Ediacaran triple junction defined by the Quebec Reentrant and New York Promontory and the Ottawa–Bonnechere aulocogen.

The 1954, 1994, 1998 and 2006 block-and-ash flow deposits from Merapi volcano, Indonesia, contain andesite blocks that display localized, dark surface coatings. These coated blocks are typically found in clusters, but may also occur isolated within the block-and-ash flow deposits. The coatings form irregular patches (tens of centimetres across) on block surfaces, and are characterized by a silver, metallic appearance. The origin and composition of the coatings have not previously been determined, and no comparable deposits have been described in detail from any other volcanically active region of the world. Carbon isotope analyses of coated and uncoated bulk rock material, and of a range of charred and uncharred wood samples, suggest that the dark block coatings at Merapi volcano are organic in origin. Scanning electron microscopy and reflected light microscopy indicate that such coatings may form due to the migration and subsequent deposition of organic carbon in cavities within the andesite blocks. The most recent field evidence from the 2006 block-and-ash flow deposits at Merapi indicates that in situ charcoalification of plant material after block deposition and/or during the final stages of flow, is the major mechanism that forms localized concentrations of block coatings. Isolated coated blocks may result either from recycling of older deposits, or, more likely, from charcoalification and redistribution of plant material caught between colliding lava blocks during flow.