In 2002, the Chicago Department of Public Health (CDPH; Chicago, Illinois) convened the Chicago-Area Neonatal MRSA Working Group (CANMWG) to discuss and compare approaches aimed at control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). To better understand these issues on a regional level, the CDPH and the Evanston Department of Health and Human Services (EDHHS; Evanston, Illinois) began an investigation.

Survey to collect demographic, clinical, microbiologic, and epidemiologic data on individual cases and clusters of MRSA infection; an additional survey collected data on infection control practices.

Level III NICUs at Chicago-area hospitals.

Neonates and healthcare workers associated with the level III NICUs.

From June 2001 through September 2002, the participating hospitals reported all clusters of MRSA infection in their respective level III NICUs to the CDPH and the EDHHS.

Thirteen clusters of MRSA infection were detected in level III NICUs, and 149 MRSA-positive infants were reported. Infection control surveys showed that hospitals took different approaches for controlling MRSA colonization and infection in NICUs.

The CANMWG developed recommendations for the prevention and control of MRSA colonization and infection in the NICU and agreed that recommendations should expand to include future data generated by further studies. Continuing partnerships between hospital infection control personnel and public health professionals will be crucial in honing appropriate guidelines for effective approaches to the management and control of MRSA colonization and infection in NICUs.

To compare risk factors, clinical features, and outcomes in patients with Enterococcus avium, Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus gallinarum, and Enterococcus mundtii bacteremia (cases) with those in patients with Enterococcus faecalis bacteremia (controls).

A retrospective case-control study.

A 725-bed, university-affiliated, academic medical center.

The clinical microbiology database at Northwestern Memorial Hospital from January 1994 to May 2003 was searched to identify cases; each case was matched to one control on the basis of date of admission.

Thirty-three cases were identified and matched with 33 controls. The mean duration of hospital stay was longer (29.7 vs 17.2 days; P = .03) and the mean time to acquisition of bacteremia was greater (16.5 vs 6.3 days; P = .003) for cases than controls. Cases were more likely to have underlying hematologic malignancies (P < .001), to have been treated with corticosteroids (P = .02), and to be neutropenic (P = .003). Controls were more likely to have an indwelling bladder catheter (P = .01), and cases were more likely to have the gastrointestinal tract as a source of infection (P = .007) and to have concurrent cholangitis (P = .002). There were no differences in severity of illness or in mortality rates.

Compared with patients with E. faecalis bacteremia, patients with non-E. faecalis, non-Enterococcus faecium enterococcal bacteremia were more likely to have a hematologic malignancy, prior treatment with corticosteroids, neutropenia, and cholangitis; longer duration of hospital stay was also identified as a clinical feature. However, non-E. faecalis, non-E. faecium species are not associated with any differences in mortality.

To determine risk factors for nosocomial infection in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

A prospective, open cohort study.

A 22-bed NICU.

Neonates admitted to a single NICU during 1994-1998 were included in the study. Outcome variables included central venous catheter (CVC)–associated primary bloodstream infection (BSI), non–CVC-associated primary BSI, pneumonia, and overall nosocomial infection. Independent variables included birth weight, use of mechanical ventilation (MV), duration of MV, use of a CVC, duration of CVC use, duration of NICU stay, gestational age, congenital malformation, maximum (ie, worst) base excess, and maximum and minimum fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2) for maintaining appropriate blood saturation levels during the first 12 hours after NICU admission.

A total of 1051 neonates were admitted to the NICU. Overall, 358 NIs were diagnosed. Non–CVC-associated primary BSI was the most frequent nosocomial infection (in 195 neonates [54.5%]), followed by pneumonia (46 [12.8%]), and CVC-associated primary BSI (35 [9.8%]). The mortality rate was 16%. In the final logistic regression model, the following 5 risk factors were found to be predictive of nosocomial infection development: use of MV, longer duration of MV, longer duration of CVC use, longer duration of NICU stay, and low maximum appropriate FIO2.

Invasive device use and duration of use continue to greatly influence the development of nosocomial infection in NICUs. In our cohort, birth weight showed no influence on the development of nosocomial infection. Low maximum FIO2 influenced the occurrence of overall nosocomial infection.

Reference data from intensive care units (ICUs) are not applicable to non-ICU patients because of the differences in device use rates, length of stay, and severity of underlying diseases among the patient populations. In contrast to the huge amount of data available for ICU patients, appropriate surveillance data for non-ICU patients have been missing in Germany.

To establish a new module (“DEVICE-KISS”) of the German Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System for generating stratified reference data for non-ICU wards.

Non-ICU patients from 42 German hospitals.

Monthly patient-days, device-days and nosocomial infections (NIs) (using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definitions) were counted. Device use rates were calculated, and NI rates were stratified by different medical specialities.

From July 2002 through June 2004, among the 77 wards, there were a total of 536,955 patient-days and 74,188 device-days (for CVC-associated primary bloodstream infections, there were 181,401 patient-days and 8,317 central vascular catheter [CVC]-days in 29 wards; for urinary catheter–associated urinary tract infections, there were 445,536 patient-days and 65,871 urinary catheter–days in 65 wards) and 483 NIs (36 bloodstream infections and 447 urinary tract infections). The mean device use rates were 4.6 device-days per 100 patient-days for CVCs (29 wards) and 14.8 device-days per 100 patient-days for urinary catheters (65 wards), respectively. Mean device-associated NI rates were 4.3 infections per 1,000 CVC-days for CVC-associated bloodstream infections and 6.8 infections per 1,000 urinary catheter–days for catheter-associated urinary tract infections.

DEVICE-KISS allows non-ICUs to recognize an outlier position with regard to NIs by providing well-founded reference data for non-ICU patients.

To assess which adverse postsurgical outcomes are best predicted by the Study on the Efficacy of Nosocomial Infection Control (SENIC) index and the National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance system (NNIS) index.

Prospective cohort study.

The service of general surgery at a tertiary care hospital.

A consecutive series of patients hospitalized for more than 1 day (n = 2,989).

The outcome best predicted by the SENIC and NNIS indices was assessed by estimating the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The areas under the ROC curves for nosocomial infection and in-hospital death were higher for the NNIS index than they were for the SENIC index (P<.05). The NNIS index predicted in-hospital death better than it predicted surgical site infection (area under the ROC curve ± SE, 0.836 ± 0.022 vs 0.689 ± 0.017; P = .001).

The NNIS index is superior to the SENIC index for all adverse postsurgical outcomes. Its ability to predict in-hospital mortality is clearly better than its ability to predict surgical site infection.

To perform a 3-year, prospective surveillance program for legionnaires disease (LD) in a large university hospital in Rome, and to assess the usefulness of the hospital water monitoring program in predicting the risk of nosocomial LD.

Samples from patients with new cases of nosocomial pneumonia were sent for legionella laboratory investigations. Meanwhile, water samples for bacteriological analysis were collected every 6 months from high- and medium-risk hospital wards (10 in total). Legionella pneumophila isolates collected were serotyped and analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.

From June 2001 through May 2004, the pneumonia surveillance identified one case of nosocomial LD among 43 cases of nosocomial pneumonia (2.3%). Environmental investigations detected L. pneumophila in 12 (18.7%) of the 64 water samples, of which 50% belonged to serogroup 1. The L. pneumophila count and the percentage of positive locations never exceeded 102 colony-forming units/L and 20%, respectively, except when the LD nosocomial case occurred (positive water samples, 40%; I. pneumophila count, <102 colony-forming units/L). Genotyping showed 3 prevalent clones of L. pneumophila in the water distribution network, of which one persisted over the 3 years. One clone contained 3 different L. pneumophila serogroups (2, 4, and 6).

The low incidence of nosocomial cases of LD appears to be associated with a low percentage (<20%) of positive water samples per semester and with a low contamination level (<102 colony-forming units/L). An infection control system for nosocomial LD should, therefore, be based on both environmental and clinical surveillance, together with the appropriate maintenance of the hospital water distribution system.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a cause of healthcare-associated infections among surgical intensive care unit (ICU) patients, though transmission dynamics are unclear.

To determine the prevalence of MRSA nasal colonization at ICU admission, to identify associated independent risk factors, to determine the value of these factors in active surveillance, and to determine the incidence of and risk factors associated with MRSA acquisition.

Prospective cohort study.

Surgical ICU at a teaching hospital.

All patients admitted to the surgical ICU.

Active surveillance for MRSA by nasal culture was performed at ICU admission during a 15-month period. Patients who stayed in the ICU for more than 48 hours had nasal cultures performed weekly and at discharge from the ICU, and clinical data were collected prospectively. Of 1,469 patients, 122 (8%) were colonized with MRSA at admission; 75 (61%) were identified by surveillance alone. Among 775 patients who stayed in the ICU for more than 48 hours, risk factors for MRSA colonization at admission included the following: hospital admission in the past year (1-2 admissions: adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.60 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.47-4.60]; more than 2 admissions: aOR, 3.56 [95% CI, 1.72-7.40]), a hospital stay of 5 days or more prior to ICU admission (aOR, 2.54 [95% CI, 1.49-4.32]), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (aOR, 2.16 [95% CI, 1.17-3.96]), diabetes mellitus (aOR, 1.87 [95% CI, 1.10-3.19]), and isolation of MRSA in the past 6 months (aOR, 8.18 [95% CI, 3.38-19.79]). Sixty-nine (10%) of 670 initially MRSA-negative patients acquired MRSA in the ICU (corresponding to 10.7 cases per 1,000 ICU-days at risk). Risk factors for MRSA acquisition included tracheostomy in the ICU (aOR, 2.18 [95% CI, 1.13-4.20]); decubitus ulcer (aOR, 1.72 [95% CI, 0.97-3.06]), and receipt of enteral nutrition via nasoenteric tube (aOR, 3.73 [95% CI, 1.86-7.51]), percutaneous tube (aOR, 2.35 [95% CI, 0.74-7.49]), or both (aOR, 3.33 [95% CI, 1.13-9.77]).

Active surveillance detected a sizable proportion of MRSA-colonized patients not identified by clinical culture. MRSA colonization on admission was associated with recent healthcare contact and underlying disease. Acquisition was associated with potentially modifiable processes of care.

To describe the control of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus (MDRABC) colonization and infection in an intensive care unit (ICU).

An 18-bed ICU in a large tertiary care teaching hospital in London.

After recognition of the outbreak, a range of infection control measures were introduced over several months that were primarily aimed at reducing environmental contamination with the outbreak strain. Strategies included use of a closed tracheal suction system for all patients receiving mechanical ventilation, use of nebulized colistin for patients with evidence of mild to moderate ventilator-associated pneumonia, improved availability of alcohol for hand decontamination, and clearer designation of responsibilities and strategies for cleaning equipment and the environment in the proximity of patients colonized or infected with MDRABC.

The outbreak lasted from June 2001 through November 2002 and involved 136 new cases of MDRABC infection or colonization. The number of newly diagnosed cases per month reached a maximum of 15 in February 2002, and the number of new cases slowly decreased over the next 9 months.

This outbreak was controlled by emphasizing the control of environmental reservoirs and did not require recourse to ward closure or placement of affected patients in isolation.

To investigate the impact of postdischarge surveillance (PDS) on surgical-site infection (SSI) rates for selected surgical procedures in acute care hospitals in Scotland.

Prospective surveillance of SSI after selected surgical procedures.

The Scottish Surveillance of Healthcare Associated Infection Programme (SSHAIP), which is based on the methodology of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance system (NNIS). Thirty-two of 46 acute care hospitals throughout Scotland contributed data to SSHAIP for this study.

Data were from 21,710 operations that took place between April 1, 2002, and June 30, 2004; nine categories of surgical procedures were analyzed. CDC NNIS system definitions and methods were used for SSI PDS. PDS is a voluntary component of the mandatory SSI surveillance program in Scotland. PDS was categorized as none, passive, active without direct observation, and active with direct observation.

From our study information, PDS data were available for 12,885 operations (59%). A total of 2,793 procedures (13%) were associated with passive PDS and 10,092 (46%) with active PDS. The SSI rate among the 8,825 operations with no PDS was 2.61% (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.3%-3.0%), which was significantly lower than the SSI rate found among the 12,885 operations for which PDS was performed (6.34% [95% CI, 5.9%-6.8%]). For breast surgery, cesarean section, hip replacement, and abdominal hysterectomy, the rate of SSI when PDS was performed was significantly higher than that when PDS was not performed (P< .01 for each procedure). No differences in SSI rates were found for surgery to repair fractured neck of the femur or for knee replacement. SSI rates were examined according to procedure type, performance of PDS, and NNIS risk index; rates of SSI increased with NNIS risk index within procedure group and PDS group. Logistic regression analyses confirmed that procedure type, performance of PDS, and NNIS risk index were all statistically independent predictors of report of an SSI (P< .05).

This Scottish national data set incorporates a substantial amount of PDS data. We recommend a procedure-specific approach to PDS, with direct observation of patients after breast surgery, cesarean section, and hysterectomy, for which the length of stay is typically short. Readmission surveillance may be adequate to detect most SSIs after orthopedic surgery or vascular surgery, for which the length of stay is typically longer.

Most data on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) isolates come from large tertiary care centers. Infection control personnel need to understand the epidemiology of MRSA and VRE across the continuum of care, including small rural hospitals, to develop effective control strategies.

To describe the epidemiology of MRSA and VRE in Iowa.

Fifteen hospitals in Iowa.

Between July 1998 and June 2001, a total of 1,968 S. aureus isolates and 1,845 Enterococcus isolates from patients infected with these pathogens were examined. Multivariate models were developed to evaluate patient and institutional risk factors for MRSA infection and VRE infection.

The proportion of S. aureus isolates resistant to methicillin was 31%, and the proportion of Enterococcus isolates resistant to vancomycin was 6%. Independent risk factors for MRSA infection included residence in a long-term care facility, age of more than 60 years, hospitalization in a hospital with less than 200 short-term care beds, and acquiring the infection in the hospital. Independent risk factors for VRE infection included use of a central venous catheter, residence in a long-term care facility, acquisition of infection in the hospital, and hospitalization in a hospital with more than 200 short-term care beds.

In Iowa, the epidemiology of MRSA differ from those of VRE. MRSA has become established in small rural hospitals. Effective MRSA control strategies may require inclusion of all hospitals in a state or region.

To examine bacterial antibiotic resistance and antibiotic use patterns in long-term acute care hospitals (LTACHs) and to evaluate effects of antibiotic use and other hospital-level variables on the prevalence of antibiotic resistance.

Multihospital ecologic study.

Antibiograms, antibiotic purchasing data, and demographic variables from 2002 and 2003 were obtained from 45 LTACHs. Multivariable regression models were constructed, controlling for other hospital-level variables, to evaluate the effects of antibiotic use on resistance for selected pathogens. Results of active surveillance in 2003 at one LTACH were available.

Among LTACHs, median prevalences of resistance for several antimicrobial-organism pairs were greater than the 90th percentile value for National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance system (NNIS) medical intensive care units (ICUs). The median prevalence of methicillin resistance among Staphylococcus aureus isolates was 84%. More than 60% of patients in one LTACH were infected or colonized with methicillin-resistant S. aureus and/or vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus at the time of admission. Antibiotic consumption in LTACHs was comparable to consumption in NNIS medical ICUs. In multivariable logistic regression modeling, the only significant association between antibiotic use and the prevalence of antibiotic resistance was for carbapenems and imipenem resistance among Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates (odds ratio, 11.88 [95% confidence interval, 1.42-99.13]; P = .02).

The prevalence of antibiotic resistance among bacteria recovered from patients in LTACHs is extremely high. Although antibiotic use in LTACHs likely contributes to resistance prevalence for some antimicrobial-organism pairs, for the majority of such pairs, other variables, such as prior colonization with and horizontal transmission of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, may be more important determinants. Further research on antibiotic resistance in LTACHs is needed, particularly with respect to determining optimal infection control practices in this environment.

To identify risk factors for infection and severe illness due to Chlamydia pneumoniae.

To identify risk factors for infection, we conducted a case-control study among nursing home residents who had onset of symptoms during December 1, 1999, to February 20, 2000. To identify risk factors for severe illness among nursing home residents, we conducted a retrospective cohort study.

A nursing home providing long-term and day care services for elderly patients in Japan.

Fifty-nine residents and 41 staff members of a nursing home.

The attack rates for respiratory illness were 53% (31 of 59) among residents and 22% (9 of 41) among staff. Infection was confirmed in 15 resident and 2 staff case patients by isolation of C. pneumoniae from nasal swab specimens. Fifteen resident case patients developed severe illness (ie, bronchitis, pneumonia, and hypoxia); one case patient died. The median age of resident case patients was 87 years. We could identify neither the source of the outbreak nor significant risk factors for infection and severe illness in residents. However, residents with a higher level of physical activity were more likely to become infected, whereas older residents (aged more than 85 years) and those with a lower level of physical activity were more likely to develop severe illness (P>.05). Contact with residents was a risk factor for infection in staff (relative risk, undefined; P = .04).

C. pneumoniae can cause large outbreaks of infection and severe illness among elderly persons, and its transmission is likely to be enhanced by close contacts among people in nursing homes. Therefore, early detection of an outbreak by means of better surveillance, and subsequent isolation of patients, may be effective control measures.

To evaluate whether skin colonization with Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex exists in a population of healthy, nondeployed US Army soldiers and, if present, how it might relate to the infections seen in current war casualties.

We sampled various skin sites of soldiers to test for the presence of A. calcoaceticus-baumannii complex and to establish the prevalence of colonization. We then used ribotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles to compare the isolates we recovered with A. calcoaceticus-baumannii complex isolates from injured soldiers.

Fort Sam Houston, Texas.

A population of healthy, nondeployed US Army soldiers in training.

A total of 17% of healthy soldiers were found to harbor A. calcoaceticus-baumannii complex. However, the strains differed from those recovered from injured soldiers.

Skin carriage of A. calcoaceticus-baumannii complex exists among soldiers before deployment. However, the difference in the strains isolated from healthy soldiers, compared with the strains from injured soldiers, makes it difficult to identify skin colonization as the source of infection.

To evaluate the impact of postdischarge surveillance on surgical site infection (SSI) rates after orthopedic surgery.

Nine hospitals participating in the Finnish Hospital Infection Program.

All patients who underwent hip or knee arthroplasty or open reduction of a femur fracture during 1999-2002.

The date of discharge was available for 11,812 procedures (90%). The median length of hospital stay was 8 days (range per hospital, 6-9 days). The overall SSI rate was 3.3% (range, 0.8%-6.4%). Of 384 SSIs detected, 216 (56%; range, 28%-90%) were detected after discharge: 93 (43%) were detected on readmission to the hospital, 73 (34%) at completion of a postdischarge questionnaire, and 23 (11%) at a follow-up visit. For 27 postdischarge SSIs (13%), the location of detection was unknown. Altogether, 32 (86%) of 37 of organ/space SSIs, 57 (80%) of 71 deep incisional SSIs, and 127 (46%) of 276 superficial incisional SSIs were detected after discharge. Most SSIs (70%) detected on readmission were severe (organ/space or deep incisional), whereas most SSIs (86%) detected at follow-up visits or at completion of a postdischarge questionnaire were superficial. Of all SSIs, 78% (range, 48%-100%) were microbiologically confirmed. Microbiologic confirmation was less common after discharge than during postoperative hospital stay (66% vs 93%; P< .001).

Postdischarge surveillance had a large impact on the rate of SSI detected after orthopedic surgery. However, postdischarge surveillance conducted by means of a questionnaire detected only a minority of deep incisional and organ/space SSIs.

To identify the main risk factors for the acquisition of candidemia in children with congenital heart disease (CHD) in order to improve the clinical management of these patients.

A case-control study.

A large tertiary-care referral center in Spain with a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) to which more than 500 children with CHD are admitted annually.

All patients had CHD and were admitted to the PICU during 1995-2000. Case patients were defined as patients with candidemia, and control patients were defined as patients without candidemia.

Twenty-eight case patients and 47 control subjects were included in the study. Case patients were younger (mean age [ ± SD], 12.5 ± 32.0 vs 38.0 ± 48.0 months; P< .01) and had a longer median PICU stay (19 vs 4 days; P < .01), and a greater percentage of case patients previously had Candida species isolated from specimens other than blood (eg, bronchial aspirates, urine, or skin specimens) (39% vs 4%; P<.01). Severity of clinical condition, as measured by the Therapeutic Intervention Scoring System (TISS) 1 week after PICU admission (odds ratio, 1.15; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-1.26; P<.01), and receipt of antibiotic treatment for more than 5 days (odds ratio, 13.42; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-137.13; P = .03) were independently associated with the development of candidemia.

Patients with CHD who have a high TISS score 1 week after PICU admission and patients who have received prolonged antibiotic therapy should be considered at high risk for candidemia. Our results suggest that shorter courses of antibiotic therapy, routine surveillance culture for Candida species, and initiation of preemptive or empirical antifungal treatment could help in the clinical management of these patients.

To determine whether contaminated ultrasound gel is the source of intermittent outbreaks of nosocomial infection due to Burkholderia cepacia complex in patients without cystic fibrosis since 1992.

A prospective clinical and in vitro study of all in-use bottles of ultrasound gel, as well as a retrospective analysis of archived bacterial strains, were performed. Handling of gel for clinical purposes throughout the hospital was evaluated. Gel and archived clinical isolates of B. cepacia complex were speciated to genomovar level and characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns were compared.

The Hospital for Sick Children, a 300-bed, tertiary care, pediatric academic health sciences center in Toronto, Canada.

All patients without cystic fibrosis from whom B. cepacia complex was recovered at the Hospital for Sick Children since 1992.

No standardized protocol for storage or handling of ultrasound gel was found. Gel from 39% of bottles grew either B. cepacia (genomovar I) or Burkholderia stabilis (genomovar IV). These isolates had pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns identical to 2 of the 7 clinical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis types that are responsible for 88% of clinical isolates.

Contaminated ultrasound gel contributed to nosocomial infection due to B. cepacia complex in this institution over the course of 10 years. Suggested guidelines for the handling of ultrasound gel are provided.

In 2004, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania mandated hospitals to report healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The increased workload led our Infection Control staff to collaborate with Atlas, a group of chart abstractors.

The objective of this study was to assess our first year of experience with mandatory reporting of HAIs—specifically, to assess Atlas' contribution to surveillance.

Cases were selected if they had 1 or more of the International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes designated by Pennsylvania as a possible HAI. After training by the Infection Control staff, Atlas applied National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) system case definitions for catheter-associated urinary tract infections (UTIs) and surgical site infections (SSIs), and they applied NNIS chest imaging criteria to eliminate cases that were not ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). To assess Atlas' performance, Infection Control staff conducted a parallel review.

For discharges from the hospital during the fourth quarter of 2004, a total of 410 UTIs, 59 SSIs, and 56 VAPs were identified on the basis of state-designated ICD-9-CM codes; review by Atlas/Infection Control determined that 15%, 15%, and 16% of cases met case definitions, respectively. Of cases reviewed by both Infection Control and Atlas, 87% of the assessments made by Atlas were correct for UTI, and 96% were correct for SSI. For VAP, Infection Control concluded that 39% of cases could be ruled out on the basis of chest imaging criteria; Atlas correctly dismissed these 12 cases but incorrectly dismissed an additional 6 (error, 19%). Surveillance was not timely: 1-2 months elapsed between the time of HAI onset and the earliest case review.

With ongoing training by Infection Control, Atlas successfully demonstrated a role in retrospective HAI surveillance. However, despite a major effort to comply with mandates, time lags and other design limitations rendered the data of low utility for Infection Control. States that are planning HAI-reporting programs should standardize an efficient surveillance methodology that yields data capable of guiding interventions to prevent HAI.

To describe the results of an intervention program to reduce the rate of surgical site infection (SSI) in the breast tumor department of a referral teaching hospital for patients with cancer.

Preventive measures introduced in the Breast Tumor Department of the study hospital included the following: starting in July 2000, use of sterile technique for wound care; starting in 2001, use of closed antireflux silicone evacuation systems, use of perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis, provision of feedback to surgeons, and remodeling of the ambulatory wound care clinic. We conducted surveillance of all patients who underwent mastectomy between February 1 and December 31, 2001, and the SSI rate was calculated. A case-control analysis was performed for risk factors known to be associated with SSI. Results were compared with the data from 2000.

The study included data on 385 surgeries. SSIs were registered in 52 (13.7%) of these 385, which was a rate 58.6% less than the 2000 infection rate (33.1%). Risk factors associated with SSI included concomitant chemotherapy and radiation therapy (OR, 3.6 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.9-7.1]), surgery performed during an evening shift (OR, 1.9 [95% CI, 1.1-3.6]), and insertion of a second drainage tube during the late postoperative period (OR, 2.8 [95% CI, 1.4-5.7]). The mean number (± SD) of postoperative visits to the outpatient wound care clinic was reduced from 11.6 ± 7.1 in 2000 to 9.2 ± 4.4 in 2001 (P< .001, Student's t test). The mean number of days that the evacuation systems were used was reduced from 19.0 to 16.0 days (P =.001, Student's t test).

Continuous wound surveillance, along with feedback to surgeons, use of closed antireflux evacuation systems, and standardized practices in wound and drainage-tube care, decreased by 58.6% the rate of SSI in a breast surgical department with high rates of infection.

The objective of this study was to analyze methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) percentages (defined as the percentage of S. aureus isolates that are resistant to methicillin) and antimicrobial consumption in intensive care units (ICUs) participating in Project SARI (Surveillance of Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in Intensive Care Units), to look for temporal changes in MRSA percentages and antimicrobial consumption in individual ICUs as an indicator of the impact of an active surveillance system, and to investigate the differences between ICUs with increased MRSA percentages versus those with decreased percentages during a period of 3 years (2001-2003).

This was a prospective, ICU-based and laboratory-based surveillance study involving 38 German ICUs during 2000-2003. Antimicrobial use was reported in terms of defined daily doses (DDDs) per 1,000 patient-days. Temporal changes in the MRSA percentage and antimicrobial use in individual ICUs were calculated by means of the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The incidence density of nosocomial MRSA infection was defined as the number of nosocomial MRSA infections per 1,000 patient-days.

From February 2000 through December 2003, a total of 38 ICUs reported data on 499,694 patient-days and 9,552 S. aureus isolates, including 2,249 MRSA isolates and 660,029 DDDs of antimicrobials. Cumulative MRSA percentages ranged from 0% to 64.4%, with a mean of 23.6%. The MRSA incidence density ranged from 0 to 38.2 isolates per 1,000 patient-days, with a mean of 2.77 isolates per 1,000 patient-days. There was a positive correlation between MRSA percentage and imipenem and ciprofloxacin use (P<.05). Overall, comparison of data from 2001 with data from 2003 showed that MRSA percentages increased in 18 ICUs (median increase, 13.2% [range, 1.6%-38.4%]) and decreased in 14 ICUs (median decrease, 12% [range, 1.0%-48.4%]). Increased use of third-generation cephalosporins, glycopeptides, or aminoglycosides correlated significantly with an increase in the MRSA percentage (P<.05). The cumulative nosocomial MRSA infection incidence density for 141 ICUs that did not participate in SARI and, therefore, did not receive feedback increased from 0.26 to 0.35 infections per 1,000 patient-days during a 3-year period, whereas the rate in SARI ICUs decreased from 0.63 to 0.40 infections per 1,000 patient-days.

The MRSA situation in German ICUs is still heterogeneous. Because MRSA percentages range from 0% to 64.4%, further studies are required to confirm findings that no change in the MRSA percentage and a decrease in the nosocomial MRSA infection incidence density in SARI ICUs reflect the impact of an active surveillance system.

We conducted an epidemiologic investigation at the beginning of a nosocomial outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) to clarify the dynamics of SARS transmission, the magnitude of the SARS outbreak, and the impact of the outbreak on the community.

We identified all potential cases of nosocomially acquired SARS, linked them to the most likely infection source, and described the hospital containment measures.

A 2,300-bed medical center in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

A total of 55 cases of SARS were identified, and 227 hospital workers were quarantined. The index patient and neighboring patients were isolated. A chest physician team reviewed medical charts and chest radiographs and monitored the development of SARS in patients staying in the ward. The presence of underlying lung disease and immunocompromise in some patients made the diagnosis of SARS difficult. Some cases of SARS were diagnosed after the patients had died. Medical personnel were infected only if they cared for patients with unrecognized SARS, and caretakers played important roles in transmission of SARS to family members. As the number of cases of nosocomial SARS increased, the hospital closed the affected ward and expedited construction of negative-pressure rooms on other vacated floors for patient cohorting, and the last case in the hospital was identified 1 week later.

Timely recognition of SARS is extremely important. However, given the limitations of SARS testing, possible loss of epidemic links, and the nonspecific clinical presentations in hospitalized patients, it is very important to establish cohorts of persons with low, medium, and high likelihoods of SARS acquisition. Rapid closure of affected wards may minimize the impact on hospital operations. Establishment of hospitals dedicated to appropriate treatment of patients with SARS might minimize the impact of the disease in future epidemics.