This, and the following three papers, where first presented at GNSS 99, the Second European Symposium on Global Navigation Satellite Systems held in Genoa, Italy from 5th to 8th October 1999.

Galileo is being developed as the European contribution to the next generation of navigation satellites to replace GNSS1. Sponsored by the European Union, Galileo will be a civil, internationally controlled and operated system that will secure the long-term availability of satellite-based navigation services for multi-modal purposes throughout the European region and beyond. Galileo will be designed to support a wide variety of applications. These include professional navigation, position reference, safety, emergency, tracking, sport/leisure and governmental. Such services may be open to all, for safety-of-life applications, or for commercial users. In the case of safety and commercial applications in particular, it is imperative that the appropriate institutional control and regulatory framework is in place for purposes of safety and economic regulation. To ensure that the various parties understand their obligations and liabilities, clear legal instruments must be put in place to support the organisational framework. It is planned to attract private investment to fund elements of system development and operation through Private/Public Partnership arrangements. At present there is no institutional, regulatory or legal framework that will enable the early impetus to Galileo development to be maintained. This presents a challenge that Europe must address without delay. It has been the subject of several European Commission studies in the past twelve months. In a complementary activity under contract to the European Space Agency (ESA), a European industry consortium comprising Alcatel, Alenia, DASA and Matra Marconi Space was tasked to complete the preliminary design of the space and ground segments by the Autumn of 1999. One task of this study, led by Matra Marconi Space, relates to a study of the impact of institutional, regulatory and legal issues on the organisation and development of Galileo. This paper describes the studies undertaken into these issues within the overall Galileo development programme.

Satellite navigation has demonstrated its ability to enhance the safety and efficiency of multi-modal transport systems and act as a stimulant to economic growth and commercial development. The decision of the Transport Ministers to proceed with the definition stage of Galileo currently being funded by the European Commission and the ESA GalileoSat programme will include the complex question of security and defence considerations. Initial studies were completed over the past year in a Civil Military Interface study and by the GNSS Forum for Security and Defence Considerations. This paper presents the findings of the Civil Military Interface study undertaken for the European Commission, DGVII, that identified the security and military implications of a civil operated and controlled satellite navigation service for Europe.

In many combined GPS/cellular radio receivers, the cellular radio segment is not used to aid the positioning process. Recently proposed Assisted-GPS systems use the communications channel to improve receiver time-to-first-fix and the GPS tracking sensitivity. However, the cellular radio signals can also be used for locating the receiver. Studies using the GSM mobile communication system have shown positional accuracy comparable to that of SA-degraded GPS. To achieve maximum performance (accuracy, availability, integrity and reliability), both sources of positioning information, GPS and cellular, should be regarded as sensor inputs to an integrated navigation system. In this way the benefits of both systems can be fully exploited to produce an optimal navigation solution.

This paper, and the following 5 papers, were first presented at a Symposium on ‘Advanced Moving-Map Displays’ held on the 3rd and 4th of August 1999 at the US Naval Research Laboratory Detachment at the NASA Stennis Space Centre, Mississippi and are reproduced in modified form with the kind permission of the NRL Commanding Officer, Captain Douglas H. Rau USN.

The role of human factors in map design is to serve as a mediator between the technology availed by electronic digital maps (particularly vector maps) on the one hand, and the many tasks performed by the user on the other. Simply put, no one map is best suited for all tasks. The appropriate mapping of map to task is, in turn, mediated by a series of information processing principles, articulated by the engineering psychologist. The field is on the threshold of being able to provide computational models, based on these principles, that will provide guidance to the map designer as to the circumstances that make one map format better than another for a particular application. This paper describes these principles as applied to two domains of vector map design: the domain of three-dimensional maps, and the domain of database overlay.

One approach to increasing the area coverage of small-screen map displays is to exploit the ‘elasticity’ of the electronic display through use of non-linear scaling. Although resolution is necessarily lost in areas of smaller scale, bitmap images lose important information when re- scaled. This can render features unrecognisable and text unreadable. Vector maps are more tolerant to non-linear scaling because critical position information found in vertices of lines is distorted without being lost. Examples of non-linear scaling are presented to demonstrate the effect on bitmap and vector images. Ongoing research examining the user performance benefits of non-linear displays is also described.

Integration of GPS/INS navigation systems is a common topic for aeronautical and road applications. The use of these technologies for personal localisation requires more than just portable sensors and a change of ergonomics; it requires a totally different approach for dead reckoning algorithms. This paper will focus on different human applications and reveals the particular problem encountered.

At present, the whole shipping industry is concerned about safety of navigation. In particular, attention is focused on High Speed Craft. There has been a sharp increase in numbers of this kind of vessel, which primarily carries passengers but is also known to carry goods. Some units can reach speeds of over 45 knots with capacity for 900 passengers. These passengers have a basic right to life and their means of transport should obviously follow all safety codes, regulations and IMO resolutions. This paper describes the development of a monitoring system that could automatically transmit safety parameters and position from the ship to a management control centre. Digital and analogical alarms, ship condition readings and other safety-related parameters may be recorded and transmitted in near real- time using the latest communications and positioning technologies.

While position integrity is crucial when positioning systems are to be used for safety-critical operations such as in aviation applications, current positioning algorithms are generally optimised for accuracy instead. Even when they are combined with fault detection and exclusion schemes, these algorithms still give sub-optimal integrity. This paper promotes a new method of algorithm design that takes integrity rather than accuracy as the parameter to optimise. The new class of high-integrity positioning algorithms described aims to improve integrity with both current and new systems not by improving the physical infrastructure, but by using clever algorithmic optimisation in the receiver. A small simulation example shows that the integrity and availability of un-augmented GPS for non-precision approach can indeed be improved substantially.

Distance and course to steer along part of a great ellipse can be readily determined with the use of vector analysis and differential geometry. Although the resulting integral for distance is not amenable to direct solution, it can nevertheless be handled efficiently and quickly by available commercial mathematical software. In this paper, a method of computing distance along with course to steer is presented and is one that has been prepared with the syntax of a particular commercial mathematics package in mind. This approach was intended to appeal to the navigator who is interested in the mathematics of navigation, and who nowadays solves his problems with a portable computer.

Although numerous at smaller geographic scales, vector databases often do not exist at the more detailed, larger scales. A possible solution is the use of image processing techniques to detect edges in high-resolution satellite imagery. Features such as roads and airports are formed from the edges and matched up with similar features in existing low-resolution vector map databases. By replacing the old features with the new more accurate features, the resolution of the existing map database is improved. To accomplish this, a robust edge detection algorithm is needed that will perform well in noisy conditions. This paper studies and tests one such method, the Wavelet Multi-scale Edge Detector. The wavelet transform breaks down a signal into frequency bands at different levels. Noise present at lower scales smoothes out at higher levels. It is demonstrated that this property can be used to detect edges in noisy satellite imagery. Once edges are located, a new method will be proposed for storing these edges geographically so that features can be formed and paired with existing features in a vector map database.

This paper outlines a technique to represent terrain using tree structures, based on Morton ordering to avoid the use of pointers. This approach enables terrain data to be organised in a hierarchical form affording a trade-off between the speed of access to the terrain database and resolution of the terrain data extracted from the tree. A set of database access algorithms is developed that form the basis of path extraction needed for real-time mission management. Several examples are presented to illustrate the performance of the routeing algorithms developed in the paper.

Vector map databases offer the potential for customised cockpit moving-map displays, in which user-specified cartographic features can be layered to meet mission requirements. The disadvantage of vector moving-maps is the potential for increased user workload. In 1995, the Naval Research Laboratory and the Naval Air Weapons Center jointly performed a preference study, during which aircrew viewed demonstrations of prototype moving-map displays and responded to a detailed questionnaire concerning the usefulness of each display. This paper summarises aircrew interviews from that study pertaining to both vector moving-map displays and vector feature overlays, including Height-Above-Threshold (HAT), threat rings, and Clear Line-of-Sight (CLOS).

This paper was first presented at a workshop arranged by the Netherlands Institute of Navigation on 5 November 1999 at the Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

The development and introduction of GPS in the early Eighties has led to an exponential growth in military and civilian applications. Worldwide, GPS is becoming a cornerstone in applications of transport, (offshore) survey, (precision) agriculture, network timing, military operations and many other applications. And yet, for a number of applications, GPS as sole-means or augmented – has some deficiencies, and its performance does not satisfy the user's requirements. Some of these deficiencies will be discussed in this paper. A number of maritime operations will be mentioned where (D)GPS as sole-means is considered by the author as unsafe navigational practice. Development and implementation of integrated navigation receivers using multiple navigation-signal sensors ((D)Galileo, (D)GPS, Eurofix, DR) using receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) could solve the majority of the deficiencies of these systems in their stand-alone state.

This paper argues for the use of landmarks (for example, traffic lights, churches, petrol stations) within the turn-by-turn visual and voice directions given by in-vehicle navigation systems. Such prominent features of the driving environment are consistent with basic human navigational strategies, are valued by drivers, and have been shown significantly to improve the usability of electronic in-car navigational aids. For future systems actively to include such information, it is critical that (a) only ‘good’ landmarks are used, (b) such landmarks are presented to the driver in the most appropriate way, and (c) the practical needs of industry are fully accounted for.

Vector-based maps are an advanced capability of digital moving-map systems that are easily customised and can be powerful aids to aircrew information processing and decision-making. However, they may place excessive demands on an aircrew's information processing requirements, cause an increase in workload, and degrade situational awareness if the user interface is not designed properly. There is little information available about the human factors and situational awareness issues relevant to vector-based maps. In this paper, we summarise relevant research on human factors and situational awareness aspects of using vector-based maps, identify key issues, and recommend directions for future research.

There is increasing pressure from commercial interests to obtain radio bandwidth for both terrestrial and satellite radio-communication applications. Existing civil radio-navigation and military radio-location bands are now being scrutinised by these interests. This background paper is about those pressures and the factors that marine navigators need to be aware of now and will need to deal with in the future.

This paper considers the development of three autopilots for controlling the yaw responses of an autonomous underwater vehicle model. The autopilot designs are based on the adaptive network-based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), a simulated, annealing-tuned control algorithm and a traditional proportional-derivative controller. In addition, each autopilot is integrated with a line-of-sight (LOS) guidance system to test its effectiveness in steering round a series of waypoints with and without the presence of sea current disturbance. Simulation results are presented that show the overall superiority of the ANFIS approach.

Four manuscript charts of British ports, and notes on them, were made in the 1590s by an English Catholic pilot, N. Lambert. They were sent to Don Juan de Idiáquez, Philip II's secretary, through the mediation of an English Jesuit exile, Robert Persons (or Parsons). Lambert also offered to pilot Spanish ships and guide Spanish troops in raids on the coasts of England and Wales, and prepared a list of appropriate targets. Being some of the earliest charts of the ports concerned, and hitherto unpublished, they are here presented with relevant background material.

Many issues related to incorporating real-time spatial information within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) need to be investigated. It can be established that the concept of real-time in relation to the input, analysis, display, and output of complex spatial information depends directly on specific user applications. This dependency has been evident throughout the Naval Research Laboratory's development of a real-time GIS for hydrographic surveys. This paper contrasts the issues and requirements observed for this application with those of vector moving-map displays for high-speed aeronautical applications. It also attempts to quantify the influence of various factors and impacts affecting real-time response to specialised applications like vector moving-map displays.

This is an updated and revised version of a paper originally presented to a CNS/ATM Forum of representatives from the States, airlines and air traffic service provider organisations of the Pacific region meeting in Sydney, Australia on 16 April 1998. The Forum was organised under the auspices of the Australian and New Zealand Divisions of the Royal Aeronautical Society.

There are many legal issues involved in the provision and use of new technology based on satellite navigation and communications in Air Traffic Management Systems. These include aspects of international space law, international air law and domestic state law. Spanning these aspects are regional provisions and the role of ICAO. This paper considers these issues with particular reference to the Pacific region, which is in the lead in adopting the new technology, and concludes that much of the existing law applies, but that new law is also required if the legal framework is to keep pace with introduction of the new technology.