Two rattans species were studied in Côte d'Ivoire using a stage-classified matrix model to compare their demography and life histories. Respectively 854 and 1009 genets of Eremospatha macrocarpa (pleonanthic) and Laccosperma secundiflorum (hapaxanthic) were censused every 6 mo over 18 mo. The population growth rates of E. macrocarpa (λ = 0.979) and L. secundiflorum (λ = 0.959) were not significantly different from 1. This indicates that the populations were close to equilibrium. However, the difference between the stable stage distributions and the observed distributions indicated temporal variation in vital rates. Elasticity analysis showed that growth and fecundity had lower contributions to λ than the survival rates for the two species. A Life Table Response Experiment revealed that the survival of the first juvenile stage (all stems < 6 m in length), fecundity, growth of the second juvenile stage (at least one stem > 6 m in length) and adult (reproductive) survival highly contribute to the differences between the demography of the two species. Reproduction is postponed longer for L. secundiflorum than for E. macrocarpa and the mean remaining life span for adult genets is shorter for L. secundiflorum than for E. macrocarpa. Finally, our results suggest the existence of two trade-offs within reproduction which suggest that, although the two species have different demographic features, the λ of their populations are not significantly different from 1.

In this paper, we investigate which factors determine tree clustering in Southern African savannas. This was tested by measuring clustering of trees using the T-squared sampling method in plots of the Kruger National Park experimental burning programme in South Africa. Fire return interval is the main treatment in these plots, but also several auxiliary determining parameters like clay content in the soil, diameter of tree canopies, understorey composition, tree species diversity and average annual rainfall were measured while sampling. In the Kruger National Park 48 plots distributed over four different landscape types and with three different burning treatments (never, once every 3 y and annually) were sampled. First, we related the clustering of trees to these environmental variables. When looking at the most abundant species in each plot, the analysis revealed that clustering is mainly correlated with clay content in the soil. This analysis also showed that fire frequency had a positive effect on the clustering of tree species that are not very abundant. We suggest that less abundant species might be less resistant to fire and therefore adopt a mechanism of clustering to exclude grass fires under their canopy. Finally, we tested the effect of clustering on the impact of fire on trees by analysing the relationship between the distance of a tree to its nearest neighbour and its canopy diameter. We found that clustering reduces the damaging effect of fire on trees. Our study contributes to understanding of savanna functioning by showing which processes are relevant in the distribution of savanna trees.

The relative effectiveness of arboreal or terrestrial birds at dispersing seeds of Ormosia macrocalyx and O. bopiensis (Fabaceae: Papilionoideae) were studied in south-eastern Peru. Seeds of both species were either scarified, to represent seed condition after dispersal by terrestrial birds, or left intact, to represent seed condition after dispersal by arboreal birds. Seeds were distributed along forest transects, and germination, seedling development and mortality were monitored to determine the successes of the two groups at producing seedlings. Scarified seeds germinated with the early rains of the dry-to-wet-season transition, when erratic rainfall was interspersed with long dry spells. Intact seeds germinated 30 d later when the rain was more plentiful and regular. Intact seeds of O. macrocalyx gave rise to significantly more seedlings (41.1% vs. 25.5%) than did scarified seeds, in part, because significantly more seedlings from scarified seeds (n = 20) than from intact seeds (n = 3) died from desiccation when their radicles failed to enter the dry ground present during the dry-to-wet-season transition. Also, seedlings from scarified seeds were neither larger nor more robust than those from intact seeds despite their longer growing period. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that dispersal effectiveness of arboreal birds, at least for O. macrocalyx, is greater than that of terrestrial birds. Screen-house experiments in which seedlings developed under different watering regimes supported this result. Numbers of seedlings developing from intact and scarified seeds of O. bopiensis did not differ significantly.

Decomposition was studied in a reciprocal litter transplant experiment to examine the effects of forest type, litter quality and their interaction on leaf decomposition in four tropical forests in south-east Brazil. Litterbags were used to measure decomposition of leaves of one tree species from each forest type: Calophyllum brasiliense from restinga forest; Guapira opposita from Atlantic forest; Esenbeckia leiocarpa from semi-deciduous forest; and Copaifera langsdorffii from cerradão. Decomposition rates in rain forests (Atlantic and restinga) were twice as fast as those in seasonal forests (semi-deciduous and cerradão), suggesting that intensity and distribution of precipitation are important predictors of decomposition rates at regional scales. Decomposition rates varied by species, in the following order: E. leiocarpa > C. langsdorffii > G. opposita > C. brasiliense. However, there was no correlation between decomposition rates and chemical litter quality parameters: C:N, C:P, lignin concentration and lignin:N. The interaction between forest type and litter quality was positive mainly because C. langsdorffii decomposed faster than expected in its native forest. This is a potential indication of a decomposer's adaptation to specific substrates in a tropical forest. These findings suggest that besides climate, interactions between decomposers and plants might play an essential role in decomposition processes and it must be better understood.

Elephant are believed to be one of the main ecological drivers in the conversion of savanna woodlands to grassland. We assessed the impacts of elephant on large trees (≥5 m in height) in the southern section of the Kruger National Park. Tree dimensions and utilization by elephant were recorded for 3082 individual trees across 22 transects (average length of 3 km and 10 m wide). Sixty per cent of the trees exhibited elephant utilization and 4% were dead as a direct result of elephant foraging behaviour. Each height class of tree was utilized in proportion to abundance. However, the size of the tree and the species influenced the intensity of utilization and foraging approach. Sclerocarya birrea was actively selected for and experienced the highest proportional utilization (75% of all trees). Interestingly, the proportion of large trees that were utilized and pushed over increased with distance from permanent water, a result which has implications for the provision of water in the KNP. We conclude that mortality is likely to be driven by a combination of factors including fire, drought and disease, rather than the actions of elephant alone. Further investigation is also required regarding the role of senescence and episodic mortality.

Fish biomass, species richness and composition were compared between upland streams draining two contrasting geological units (Pebas and Tsa) in Colombian Amazonia. Because Pebas sediments reportedly show higher levels of base concentrations than Tsa sediments, we expected that the fish communities from the Pebas streams would show highest biomass and species richness, and that the species composition would vary between the two upland systems. Eight forest streams were sampled in four locations, applying four daily sampling events. Tsa soil samples were comparatively sandy, whereas Pebas soil samples tended to be siltier, with higher levels of exchangeable acidity, Ca, Mg and total bases. Conductivity, concentrations of bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na), bicarbonates and temperature showed higher values in Pebas stream-water samples than in Tsa. In total, 7696 fish individuals were captured, belonging to eight orders, 28 families and 122 species. Pebas streams had 1.3 times more species than Tsa streams, and more than twice the total biomass. Species richness and biomass were highly correlated with conductivity and water concentrations of Mg and Na, and biomass alone with dissolved oxygen. Fish species composition differed significantly between the geological units. Species turnover was not related to distance between sampling locations.

The decomposition of litter of two tree species Graffenrieda emarginata (Melastomataceae), Purdiaea nutans (Cyrillaceae) and the mixture of both was investigated in a tropical montane rain forest in southern Ecuador at two different altitudes (1850 and 2280 m). The two litter types differed strongly in nitrogen concentration, suggesting that G. emarginata (1.21% N) decomposes faster than P. nutans (0.73% N). To study the effect of soil micro-arthropods on the decomposition process, litterbags with mesh-size of 48 μm, excluding soil micro-arthropods, and 1 mm, allowing colonization by soil micro-arthropods, were used. Litter mass loss was measured after 2, 6 and 12 mo exposure in the field; further, microbial biomass and micro-arthropod colonization of the litter were investigated after 2 and 12 mo. Generally, litter decomposed faster at 1850 m than at 2280 m (60% and 76% dry mass remaining after 12 mo, respectively); G. emarginata and mixed litter decomposed faster than P. nutans litter. After 12 mo mixed litter decomposed faster (65% of dry mass remaining) than both individual litter species (70% and 71% of dry mass of G. emarginata and P. nutans litter remaining, respectively) indicating that non-additive effects contributed to litter decomposition. Microbial biomass increased during the experiment and was higher at 1850 m than at 2280 m. The most abundant micro-arthropods in both litter types were oribatid mites followed by Collembola, Gamasina, Uropodina and Prostigmata + Astigmata. Micro-arthropods were generally more abundant at 1850 m suggesting higher biotic activity at lower altitudes. Soil micro-arthropods contributed little to decomposition processes indicating that litter decomposition is mainly due to micro-organisms.

We measured macronutrient concentrations in soils and leaves of trees, shrubs and herbs at 1900, 2400 and 3000 m in an Ecuadorian tropical montane forest. Foliar N, P, S and K concentrations in trees were highest at 1900 m (21.7, 2.2, 1.9 and 10.0 mg g−1). At 2400 and 3000 m, foliar concentrations of N, P, S and K were similar to nutrient concentrations in tropical trees with apparent nutrient deficiency, as presented in literature. Unlike foliar nutrient concentrations, the amounts of plant-available nutrients in mineral soil were not affected by altitude or increased significantly with increasing altitude. High C:N ratios (25:1 at 2400 m and 34:1 at 3000 m) and C:P ratios (605:1 at 2400 m and 620:1 at 3000 m) in the soil organic layer suggested slow mineralization of plant litter and thus, a low availability of N and P at high altitudes. Foliar N:P ratios were significantly higher at 2400 m (11.3:1) than at 3000 m (8.3:1), indicating that at high altitudes, N supply was more critical than P supply. In conclusion, the access of plants to several nutrients, most likely N, P, S and K, decreased markedly with increasing altitude in this tropical montane forest.

We studied the effects of savanna fires on the structure of local ungulate communities in a West African woodland savanna. The distribution of 11 ungulate species over 9−15 burned sites (the number of which increased as burning activity continued during the dry season) and 7−13 unburned sites was compared with a variety of null models or randomized ‘virtual communities’. Five different parameters of community structure were examined: body mass distribution, co-occurrence patterns, species richness, species density and guild dominance. Overall, ungulate species were not randomly distributed over burned and unburned sites. The regular spacing of body masses in the set of species recorded on burned and unburned sites indicated competition, since species similar in body mass are more likely to compete than species of different size. However, co-occurrence patterns on burned sites were random, indicating absence of competition at fine spatial scales due to differential habitat use within the burned landscape. Although the attractiveness of the regrowth on burned sites resulted in higher numbers of ungulates compared with unburned sites, species richness was not different. Grazers were the dominant guild on burned sites, but there were no differences in species richness or species density between grazers and browsers on unburned sites.

Many studies conclude that light is the most important resource that determines plant performance of tree saplings in tropical rain forests, and implicitly suggest that soil resources are less important. To provide a quantitative test for soil versus light effects on sapling performance, we studied how saplings of the shade-tolerant tree species Brosimum alicastrum responded to contrasting levels of light availability and soil fertility in a Mexican tropical rain forest. Therefore saplings were selected from ten low-light exposure (crown position index <1.5) and ten high-light exposure (crown position index ≥2.5) sites either on productive alluvial soils, or on poor sandy soils on adjacent hills. Annual growth responses were scored for 58 saplings. The soil–light interaction had a strong positive effect on branching rate and leaf area production, rather than light or soil alone. Height growth only increased at higher light availability. Herbivore damage was higher on the more productive soil and, to a lesser extent, at higher light availability. Our results suggest that saplings (1) responded differently to soil and light availability, (2) expanded in overall size when both soil and light limitations are released, but only increased in height with increasing light intensity (3) and faced a trade-off between expansion and defence along both soil and light gradients. This study emphasizes the role of soil resources, in interaction with light availability, on the plastic responses in saplings living in a tropical forest understorey.

Fragmented forest landscapes with large proportions of edge area are common in the tropics, though little is known about functional responses of trees to edge effects. Foliar δ13C can increase our understanding of tree function, as these values reflect changes in ci/ca as trees respond to environmental gradients. We expected that foliar δ13C would be enriched, indicating a decline in ci/ca, in Pentaclethra macroloba trees growing at forest edges in north-eastern Costa Rica. We also anticipated this isotopic shift in δ13C values of soil carbon and soil respired CO2. Three transects perpendicular to forest edges were established at three study sites, and six plots per transect were located 0–300 m from edges. Within plots, foliage, soil and soil respired CO2 were collected for isotopic analyses. Foliar δ13C, thus ci/ca, and soil carbon δ13C did not vary along the edge to interior gradient. δ13C for canopy and understorey foliage averaged −29.7‰ and −32.5‰, respectively, while soil carbon δ13C averaged −28.0‰. Soil respired CO2 δ13C ranged from −29.2‰ to −28.6‰ and was significantly depleted within 50 m of edges. The predominant lack of functional responses at forest edges indicates that P. macroloba trees are robust and these forests are minimally influenced by edge effects.

The pattern of coarse-root distribution was analysed in the woody plant community along a 200-m edaphic gradient on a Kalahari sand woodland catena in Zimbabwe. The root systems of 45 trees and shrubs were excavated, mapped, and digitized to analyse rooting depth and architecture. Patterns of change in the above-ground community were also identified along this transect. Rooting depth increased, and the centre of mass of the root profile shifted towards the maximum rooting depth as a function of distance up the catena. The data also suggest that interspecific variation in rooting depth may increase up the catena. The below-ground pattern was accompanied by above-ground changes: species richness and basal area also increased up the catena. It is hypothesized that increasing soil depth allows greater coexistence of alternative water-use strategies, resulting in the observed increase in species richness up the catena.

The present study investigated how climate and plant size affect the growth of Bauhinia thonningii and how fire and source of regeneration (grown from coppice versus seedlings) might modify the results. The study was conducted over a period of 10 y, from 1997 to 2007, at a savanna site in central Zambia. Trees were marked and monitored throughout the entire period; they showed a phase of declining growth (1998–2003) and a phase of low growth (2004–2007). During the phase of declining growth autocorrelation was high but either weakened or disappeared during the phase of low growth. After adjusting data for autocorrelation, climate factors and tree size accounted for between 14% and 35% of the variation in annual tree radial growth. However, the growth responses of trees to climate factors and tree size varied with the source of regeneration (i.e. coppice or seedling) and fire treatment. Trees of seedling origin were only affected by climate factors and tree size when exposed to annual burning whereas all trees of coppice origin were significantly affected by climate factors and tree size, regardless of the fire treatment. However, basal radial growth of saplings that were monitored for 4 y (2003–2007) was significantly influenced by maximum temperature and rainfall that accounted for 33–47% of the variance in annual radial growth under fire protection. Saplings recovered from shoot die-back during the cool dry season by resprouting in the hot dry season and this annual die-back slowed the height growth of B. thonningii saplings.

High-nutrient patches are important for regulating the structure and physiognomy of dystrophic habitats. Leaf-cutting ants create these rich patches in many neotropical habitats. Burning, however, could diminish or even annul the effects of ant nests on soil properties. To test this hypothesis, we compared the nutrient concentrations at various depths in soil samples near three nests of the leaf-cutting ant Atta laevigata and three non-nest soils, located in 10-ha plots subjected to burning or with fire-protection within a Brazilian cerrado. Root density in ant-nest soil was greater than in non-nest soil in both unburned and burned plots. Besides, the concentration of Ca, Mg, K and P increased 2–50-fold in ant nests from the unburned area compared to non-nest soils. In contrast, nutrient concentrations and pH in burned ant nests were similar to or lower than non-nest soils, but the nests maintained higher values of organic matter and cation exchange capacity. The positive effect of leaf-cutting ant nests as high-nutrient patches may be strongly reduced in habitats with frequent burning. In this case, the negative effects of leaf-cutter herbivory on a plant community could surpass the benefits of local nutrient enrichment by their nests.

Resumo: Sauveiros modificam as propriedades físicas e químicas do solo, alterando a estrutura e fisionomia local. Entretanto, queimadas podem reduzir os efeitos dos formigueiros nesses ambientes como, por exemplo, pela diminuição do forrageamento das formigas e, conseqüentemente, pela baixa incorporação de material orgânico ao solo. Este estudo testou o efeito do fogo sobre a concentração de nutrientes no solo de colônias de Atta laevigata em área de cerrado. A densidade de raízes foi maior nas colônias do que áreas controle, independentemente da presença do fogo. Na ausência de queimadas, as concentrações de nutrientes foram até 50 vezes superiores nos sauveiros. Contudo, queimadas reduzem a concentração de nutrientes e pH nas colônias. Possivelmente, essa baixa concentração seja atribuída à maior demanda pela vegetação remanescente, em resposta à perturbação provocada pelo fogo. Nesse caso, os efeitos negativos da herbivoria podem superar os benefícios causados por meio da disponibilização de nutrientes pelos sauveiros.

In this paper, we report on range use patterns of birds in relation to tropical forest fragmentation. Between 2003 and 2005, three understorey passerine species were radio-tracked in five locations of a fragmented and in two locations of a contiguous forest landscape on the Atlantic Plateau of São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil. Standardized ten-day home ranges of 55 individuals were used to determine influences of landscape pattern, season, species, sex and age. In addition, total observed home ranges of 76 individuals were reported as minimum measures of spatial requirements of the species. Further, seasonal home ranges of recaptured individuals were compared to examine site fidelity. Chiroxiphia caudata, but not Pyriglena leucoptera or Sclerurus scansor, used home ranges more than twice as large in the fragmented versus contiguous forest. Home range sizes of C. caudata differed in relation to sex, age, breeding status and season. Seasonal home ranges greatly overlapped in both C. caudata and in S. scansor. Our results suggest that one response by some forest bird species to habitat fragmentation entails enlarging their home ranges to include several habitat fragments, whereas more habitat-sensitive species remain restricted to larger forest patches.

In tropical forests, trees compete not only with other trees, but also with lianas, which may limit tree growth and regeneration. Liana effects may depend on the availability of above- and below-ground resources and differ between tree species. We conducted a shade house experiment to test the effect of light (4% and 35% full sun, using neutral-density screen) on the competitive interactions between seedlings of one liana (Byttneria grandifolia) and three tree species (two shade-tolerant trees, Litsea dilleniifolia and Pometia tomentosa, and one light-demanding tree, Bauhinia variegata) and to evaluate the contribution of both above- and below-ground competition. Trees were grown in four competition treatments with the liana: no competition, root competition, shoot competition and root and shoot competition. Light strongly affected leaf photosynthetic capacity (light-saturated photosynthetic rate, Pn), growth and most morphological traits of the tree species. Liana-induced competition resulted in reduced Pn, total leaf areas and relative growth rates (RGR) of the three tree species. The relative importance of above- and below-ground competition differed between the two light levels. In low light, RGR of the three tree species was reduced more strongly by shoot competition (23.1–28.7% reduction) than by root competition (5.3–26.4%). In high light, in contrast, root competition rather than shoot competition greatly reduced RGR. Liana competition affected most morphological traits (except for specific leaf area and leaf area ratio of Litsea and Pometia), and differentially altered patterns of biomass allocation in the tree seedlings. These findings suggest that competition from liana seedlings can greatly suppress growth in tree seedlings of both light-demanding and shade-tolerant species and those effects differ with competition type (below- and above-ground) and with irradiance.

The development of metacommunity theory, which suggests that the diversity and composition of communities is influenced by interactions with other communities, has produced new tools for evaluating patterns of community change along environmental gradients. These techniques were used to examine how plant communities changed along elevation gradients in montane tropical forests. Two transects of 0.1-ha vegetation plots were established every 50 m in elevation in the mountains of eastern Puerto Rico. The transects ranged from 300 m to 1000 m asl and 400 m to 900 m. In each plot, all free-standing woody stems greater than 1 cm in diameter at 130 cm in height were marked, measured and identified. Additional data on three similar transects were taken from the literature. The upper or lower boundaries of species ranges were significantly clumped along all five transects. Coherence, a measure of the number of gaps in species distributions, was also significant across all transects, and three transects showed significant, albeit low, nestedness. Four sites had significant species turnover. These results suggest that metacommunity techniques can be useful in searching for patterns of community change present in montane tropical forests.

The production and predictability of nectar resources in a population of Stachytarpheta glabra (Verbenaceae) and their use by insects and hummingbirds on ironstone outcrops in south-east Brazil were investigated. The phenology, density, nectar production, reproductive biology and floral visitors were studied, as well as territory size and daily nectar consumption by its main pollinator, Colibri serrirostris. The plant is abundant in the area, aggregated, and has a long flowering period, with very variable daily flower output. Although it can self-fertilize, it requires a pollen vector. Insect visitors totalled 21 species of bees and lepidopterans, including both pollinators and nectar robbers. Individuals of C. serrirostris defend their territories against other hummingbirds and large insects. Nectar production per hummingbird territory (mean size c. 462 m2) was estimated as 68.6–104 mL d−1 in dense areas at the flowering peak, an amount well above the estimated daily consumption of 13 mL by territory holders. Still, defence of large areas seems necessary to reduce nectar theft and cope with spatial resource unpredictability. Phenological characteristics, high density, and the fact that plants are perennial make S. glabra an attractive resource for nectar-feeders in general, and the main long-lasting nectar source for hummingbirds in the area.

There is a perception that sustained frequent fires cause nitrogen limitation over the long term (50–100 y) by volatilizing the nitrogen in soil, plant biomass and litter. Here we test this perception in a South African savanna located in the Kruger National Park. At our study site we compare the effects of 50 y of fire exclusion, season (August and February) and frequency (triennial and annual August and triennial February) of burn on nitrogen cycling and availability. We do this using three different methods to determine nitrogen mineralization; in situ incubations, laboratory incubations and ion-exchange resin bags. On each treatment we established two parallel transects 100 m apart with 10 sampling points per treatment along these transects. Daily mineralization rates for in situ incubations were determined monthly from August 2004 to June 2005 at each of the sampling points. Ion-exchange resin bags were buried (5 cm) at the same points and left in the field from August 2004 to August 2005. In February 2005 five randomly located soil samples from each of the four treatments were collected for laboratory incubations using a 7-cm-diameter soil auger. Regardless of method used our results show that there are no significant differences in daily nitrogen mineralization rates after 50 y of different burning treatments from annual burning to fire exclusion. In fact, both in situ and laboratory incubations show that nitrogen availability is higher on the annual burn than the fire exclusion (0.16 μg g−1 soil d−1 vs. 0.11 μg g−1 soil d−1 and 0.46 μg g−1 soil d−1 vs. 0.30 μg g−1 soil d−1 respectively). Perceived negative effects of fire on ecosystem functioning has curbed the use of fire as a management tool with fire often actively suppressed in savanna. The results of our study show that fire can be used more vigorously in mesic African savanna to manipulate tree:grass ratios without negatively affecting the nitrogen cycle.

We evaluated the effects of forest fragmentation on herbivory on central Amazonian trees. Levels of herbivory were measured on leaves from a total of 1200 saplings from 337 species. There was a positive and significant effect of forest fragment area on herbivore damage, with plants from continuous forest having twice as much damage as plants in the smallest fragments studied (1 ha). Measurements of herbivory rates on two species, however, indicate that the effect can be species-specific. Forest area had a positive and linear effect on rates of herbivory in Henriettella caudata (Melastomataceae), whereas in Protium hebetatum (Burseraceae), rates of herbivory were greater in the 10-ha fragments than in the 1-ha fragments and in continuous forest. There is no evidence that the nutritional and defensive characteristics of the leaves of the species we studied changed as a result of forest fragmentation, at least not in a manner consistent with the observed herbivory patterns. Herbivore predation levels, measured with artificial caterpillars, also showed no significant relationship with forest area. Therefore, neither of these top-down and bottom-up forces could explain the observed patterns of herbivory. It is suggested, instead, that forest fragmentation may affect the dispersal of insect herbivores, and reduce their abundances on small forest isolates. Altered patterns of herbivory on tree saplings may have important consequences for forest structure and dynamics.