This review outlines the prospects for gaseous hydrogen, stored in high-pressure cylinders, as a fuel for automotive applications. Following an initial description of hydrogen embrittlement problems encountered in the past in steel cylinders, the article explores the use of other types of gas cylinders, including the recent examples of hoop-wound and fully wound composites. Central to the article is the concept of the volume of hydrogen transported for the minimum amount of container weight. Finally, the role of international standards in developing safe and efficient cylinders for this application is emphasized.

Organic light-emitting devices (OLEDs) have attracted considerable interest in the last five years and are now viewed as an important competitor with liquid crystals for a wide variety of display applications. Current research focuses on the use of small-molecule and polymer materials to make organic electroluminescent displays with both passive-and active-matrix technologies. This article will discuss work on the device architecture for a polymer passive-matrix display application, the stability of polymer light-emitting displays, and the use of ink-jet printing for high-resolution patterning of red, green, and blue light-emitting polymers.

Recent developments in polymer electrolyte materials for lithium batteries are reviewed in this article. Four general classifications are recognized: (1) solvent-containing systems in which a liquid electrolyte solution either is fully miscible with a single-phase swollen polymer matrix (gel) or is a two-phase system in which “free” liquid occupies micropores within a swollen polymer network (hybrid), and conductivity (≥∼1 mS cm-1 at ambient temperature) is essentially independent of the polymer segmental motion (the thermal motion of segments of atoms along the backbone of a flexible polymer chain); (2) solvent-free, ion-coupled systems (typically polyether–Li salt complexes) in which both anions and cations are mobile within an amorphous, rubbery phase (conductivity ≤0.1 mS cm-1 at ambient temperature); (3) “single-ion” systems with anions fixed to the polymer backbone or systems with anion mobilities reduced by incorporation within larger molecules or by associations with the chain (conductivity ∼10-5 Scm-1 at ambient temperature); and (4) decoupled systems in which ionic mobility through channeled structures involves minimal local segmental displacements (conductivity 0.1–1 mS cm-1 at ambient temperature).

This article provides an overview of the field of optical-fiber sensing, including a brief introduction to the properties of optical fibers that make them suitable for material characterization and monitoring. Some of the recent developments in the field are described, with an emphasis on Bragg grating sensors, multiplexed systems, and chemical sensing, as well as the new field of microstructured fiber.

This survey focuses on the use of liquid hydrogen as an automotive fuel in comparison with the use of compressed gaseous hydrogen. The energy penalties associated with liquefaction versus gas compression are compared, followed by an examination of the weight of hydrogen relative to carrier weight for the two alternative approaches. The optimum form and design of LH2 tanks are discussed, followed by the important topic of how to achieve quick and easy transfer of LH2 from a storage tank to a vehicle.

Under certain circumstances, decreasing the dimensions of a material may lead to elastic or anelastic properties that diverge from bulk behavior. A distinction is made between elastic deformation, for which bond rearrangements are not required, and anelastic behavior, which involves reversible deformation due to defect motion. Elastic deformation (due to bond stretching) remains structure-insensitive down to near-atomic length scales, and only small deviations are expected (of the order of 10%). More significant deviations can be observed in special cases, which are described in the article. However, elastic moduli that are much lower than expected are sometimes seen, even in careful experiments. It now appears that this behavior may be explainable by time-dependent anelastic relaxation mechanisms. In contrast to purely elastic behavior, anelastic behavior is very sensitive to microstructure and is found to be common and often significant when things become small.

Color tracking describes the ability of a display to faithfully reproduce the color quality of the source image. In liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), color tracking is dependent on brightness. In order to achieve high-performance color reproduction in LCDs, the accuracy of color tracking needs to be improved. By analyzing the characteristics of twisted-nematic (TN) and in-plane switching (IPS) modes of display, the cause of poor color tracking in each mode and the differences in their causes can be clarified. In TN mode displays, both chromaticity and brightness relate to the director configuration, that is, the directional alignment of the rod-like molecules of the liquid crystals, which varies with applied voltage. The ideal IPS LCD, by virtue of its operating principle, theoretically achieves perfect color tracking; however, in actual use, the color tracking is less than optimal due to twist deformation caused by the fixed directors on the alignment layer. Based on our analysis of these phenomena, we propose strategies for improving color tracking in IPS LCDs.

The rapid development of modern photonic technologies—for example, mercury-free lamps, flat-panel displays, and solid-state lamps—demands the timely discovery of advanced phosphors. A combinatorial process has been developed to dramatically accelerate the experimental search for such phosphors. High-density phosphor “libraries” containing from 100 to over 1000 discrete chemical compositions on a 1 in. × 1 in. substrate have been made in thin-film or powder form using selective vapor deposition and liquid-dispensing techniques, respectively. In this article, the existing methods of combinatorial synthesis and screening of phosphors will be reviewed with examples. These methods may also be used to screen organic-based solid-state materials and optimize their device properties. In this regard, combinatorial and spreading techniques have been utilized to study and rapidly optimize organic light-emitting devices (OLEDs).

As advancing technologies increase the demand for planarity in integrated circuits, nanotopography has emerged as an important concern in shallow trench isolation (STI) on wafers polished by means of chemical–mechanical planarization (CMP). Previous work has shown that nanotopography—small surface-height variations of 10–100 nm in amplitude extending across millimeter-scale lateral distances on virgin wafers—can result in CMP-induced localized thinning of surface films such as the oxides or nitrides used in STI. A contact-wear CMP model can be employed to produce maps of regions on a given starting wafer that are prone to particular STI failures, such as the lack of complete clearing of the oxide in low spots and excessive erosion of nitride layers in high spots on the wafer. Stiffer CMP pads result in increased nitride thinning. A chip-scale pattern-dependent CMP simulation shows that substantial additional dishing and erosion occur because of the overpolishing time required due to nanotopography. Projections indicate that nanotopography height specifications will likely need to decrease in order to scale with smaller feature sizes in future IC technologies.

Template synthesis is a versatile nanomaterial fabrication method used to make monodisperse nanoparticles of a variety of materials including metals, semiconductors, carbons, and polymers. We have used the template method to prepare nanostructured lithium-ion battery electrodes in which nanofibers or nanotubes of the electrode material protrude from an underlying current-collector surface like the bristles of a brush. Nanostructured electrodes of this type composed of carbon, LiMn2O4, V2O5, tin, TiO2, and TiS2 have been prepared. In all cases, the nanostructured electrode showed dramatically improved rate capabilities relative to thin-film control electrodes composed of the same material. The rate capabilities are improved because the distance that Li+ must diffuse in the solid state (the current- and power-limiting step in Li-ion battery electrodes) is significantly smaller in the nanostructured electrode. For example, in a nanofiber-based electrode, the distance that Li+ must diffuse is restricted to the radius of the fiber, which may be as small as 50 nm. Recent developments in template-prepared nanostructured electrodes are reviewed.

This article presents a review of optical-fiber-based process-monitoring techniques that can be used to track the chemical reactions that take place during the processing of materials, with specific reference to thermosetting resins. The techniques covered include quantitative process-monitoring methods based on near and mid-infrared, Raman, UV–visible, evanescent wave, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The basis for refractive-index-based process monitoring using optical fibers is also presented. The techniques described here can be readily applied to other classes of materials and other areas of interest such as aging and degradation. Recent advances in noncontact process monitoring are also presented.

The emergence of miniature light sources such as the vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) is poised to advance the information age. The development of VCSELs has stimulated a wide range of materials research into epitaxial growth and device-fabrication technologies. In this article, current and emerging applications that are guiding the commercial development of VCSELs are first considered, followed by discussions of the VCSEL epitaxial structure and fabrication technologies. This brief overview will also mention recent efforts aimed at achieving long-wavelength VCSELs grown on GaAs substrates, as well as approaches for achieving a high modulation rate.

The following article is an edited transcript based on the MRS Medal presentation given by C. Mathew Mate of IBM Almaden Research Center on November 29, 2001, at the Materials Research Society Fall Meeting in Boston. Mate received the Medal for his “pioneering studies of friction at the atomic and molecular levels.” This presentation describes some of his efforts at understanding friction at the atomic level. The starting point for the author was the invention of the friction force microscope and the first observation of atomic-scale friction in 1987. Soon afterward came other applications of force microscopy, leading toward a greater understanding of friction, lubrication, and wear. These studies also have had an impact on the understanding of lubricant films in disk drives and are now aiding the development of nanoscale devices such as the “molecular raft,” an 8-Å-thick island of squalane floating on a thicker squalane film that could potentially be used to transport nanoscale objects.

Continued scaling of microelectronic devices is demanding that alternatives to SiO2 as the gate dielectric be developed soon. This in turn has placed enormous pressure on the abilities of physical characterization techniques to address critical issues such as film and interface structure and composition, transport properties, and thermal or chemical stability. This article summarizes the strengths and capabilities of four techniques used for the materials characterization of alternative gate dielectrics: scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) in conjunction with electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS), medium-energy ion scattering (MEIS), infrared-absorption spectroscopy (IRAS), and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The complementary nature of these techniques has allowed for a detailed picture of the various properties of alternative gate dielectrics, and in particular of the dielectric/silicon interface. Critical issues and features of several important alternative gate dielectrics, ZrO2, AI2O3, Y2O3, and Gd2O3, are explored in light of the well-studied SiO2/Si system.

Conjugated light-emitting polymers (LEPs) have real potential to serve as the active layer in a new generation of emissive displays. Emerging as lead candidates for first-generation displays are poly(1,4-phenylene vinylene)s (PPVs) and poly(9,9-dialkylfluorene)s, as well as other polyaromatic materials. The poly(fluorene)s are at present the most commercially developed of these LEP materials for red–green–blue (RGB) applications. The low power consumption of LEP devices in general makes them particularly suited to mobile applications. Combining solution-processable emissive polymers with direct-patterning methods such as ink-jet printing will lead to the possibility of low-cost, high-resolution displays. The synthesis and properties of PPVs and poly(9,9-dialkylfluorene)s are briefly reviewed in this article, with a major focus on recent developments.

The following is a Web Extra expanding upon the introductory article, “Science and Technology of Shape-Memory Alloys: New Developments,” by Kazuhiro Otsuka and Tomoyuki Kakeshita, Guest Editors, published in MRS Bulletin27 (2002) pp. 91–100.

Optical-fiber sensors can be placed on the skin or inside the human body for the direct measurement of biomedical parameters. This article presents an overview of the most recent applications of optical-fiber sensors for biomedical purposes and those currently under development.

We address current challenges in the fundamental understanding of physical and chemical processes that occur in the fabrication of the transistor gate stack structure. Critical areas include (1) the interface between bulk silicon and high-dielectric-constant (high-ĸ) insulators, (2) the interface between high-ĸ insulators and advanced gate electrodes, and (3) the internal interfaces that form within dielectric stacks with nonuniform material and structure compositions. We approach this topic from a fundamental understanding of bonding and electronic structure at the interfaces, and of film-growth kinetics in comparison with thermodynamics predictions. Implications for the dielectric/electrode interface with metallic gates and issues with integration will also be presented.

Chemical–mechanical polishing, or planarization (CMP), has emerged as an increasingly important technology for integrated-circuit manufacturing. Consumables used during CMP interact in a complex manner with the polishing tool, the process conditions, and the wafer being polished. In this article, several advanced analytical methods are used to analyze the properties of slurries and pads under conditions similar to those found during CMP processing. Some of the key findings are that under these process conditions, pads can be stabilized with a heat treatment prior to installation on the polisher; pads absorb slurries at different rates, and slurries also react with the pads; and the mechanical properties of the pads are dependent on the orientation of the grooves on the pad. Dynamic rheometry was used to detect de-agglomeration in sheared slurries.

A brief survey is given of the various classes of metal alloys and compounds that are suitable for hydrogen-storage and energy-conversion applications. Comparisons are made of relevant properties including hydrogen absorption and desorption pressures, total and reversible hydrogen-storage capacity, reaction-rate kinetics, initial activation requirements, susceptibility to contamination, and durability during long-term thermal cycling. Selected applications are hydrogen storage as a fuel, gas separation and purification, thermal switches, and sorption cryocoolers.