The validity and reliability of a new ambulatory impedance cardiograph (AZCG) was tested against the Minnesota Impedance Cardiograph (ZCG) during rest, orthostasis, and mental stress. Impedance cardiography allows noninvasive assessment of stroke volume, cardiac output, and systolic time intervals. A reliable ambulatory device would allow studies outside the lab. The devices were compared at two sites in healthy subjects. In both studies, the AZCG tracked changes across conditions closely with the ZCG (all Period × Device interactions were nonsignificant). Pearson rs, were .65 to .93, random intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from .80 to .98, indicating high degrees of shared measurement variance, and Cronbach's alpha indicated very good internal reliabilities (.91 to .99). Relative to the ZCG, the new AZCG appears to provide valid and reliable estimates of cardiac function at rest and during behavioral challenges in the lab.

Recognition potential (RP), a recently discovered electrophysiological response of the brain, is sensitive to semantic aspects of stimuli. Given its peak values (about 250 ms), RP may be a good candidate for the study of semantic processing during its occurrence. However, its topography and neural generators are largely unknown. To improve this state of affairs, high-resolution electroencephalography and brain electrical source analysis were carried out. Results suggest a possible origin of RP in the lingual gyrus, hence reflecting the activity of the basal extrastriate areas. RP therefore appears to be a highly valuable tool in the study of those regions considered to be the “third language areas” (in addition to Broca's and Wernicke's areas), whose precise role in language processing is still largely unknown. Another important finding was that RP amplitude in the left hemisphere differed as a function of the semantic category of the stimuli, providing evidence for the sensitivity of this component to semantic categorization. A tentative proposal is made with regard to the role of the basal extrastriate areas.

Hyperventilation (HV) is often considered part of a defense response, implying an unpleasant emotion (negative valence) combined with a strong action tendency (high arousal). In this study, we investigated the importance of arousal and valence as triggers for HV responses. Forty women imagined eight different scripts varying along the arousal and valence dimensions. The scripts depicted relaxation, fear, depressive, action, and desire situations. After each trial, the imagery was rated for valence, arousal, and vividness. FetCO2, inspiratory and expiratory time, tidal volume, and pulse rate were measured in a nonintrusive way. FetCO2 drops and decreases in inspiratory and expiratory time occurred in all but the depressive and the relaxation scripts, suggesting that a defense conceptualization of hyperventilation is not always appropriate.

We investigated whether verbs and nouns evoke comparable behavioral and N400 effects in a primed lexical decision task. Twenty-nine students were tested, 13 in a pilot study in which only response times and error rates were collected and 16 in a study in which ERPs were recorded from 124 scalp electrodes. Stimuli were noun–noun and verb–verb pairs with the targets bearing either a strong, a moderate, or no semantic association to the prime or being a pseudoword. Behavioral data revealed comparable priming effects for both word categories. These proved to be independent from the SOA (250 and 800 ms) and they followed the well-known pattern of decreasing response times and error rates with increasing relatedness between target and prime. ERPs revealed pronounced N400 effects for both word categories with a larger amplitude for noun than for verb pairs. A systematic analysis of topographic differences between noun- and verb-evoked ERPs and N400 effects, respectively, gave no convincing support to the hypothesis that the two word categories activate distinct neuronal networks.

Little is known about the effects of environmental enrichment on psychophysiological measures of arousal and orienting in humans. This study tests the hypothesis that early educational and health enrichment is associated with long-term increases in psychophysiological orienting and arousal. One hundred children were experimentally assigned to a two-year enriched nursery school intervention at ages 3–5 years and matched at age 3 years on psychophysiological measures, gender, and ethnicity to 100 comparisons who received the normal educational experience. Children were retested 6–8 years later at age 11 years on skin conductance (SC) and electroencephalogram (EEG) measures of arousal and attention during pre- and postexperimental rest periods and during the continuous performance task. Nursery enrichment was associated with increased SC amplitudes, faster SC rise times, faster SC recovery times, and less slow-wave EEG during both rest and CPT conditions. This is believed to be the first study to show that early environmental enrichment is associated with long-term increases in psychophysiological orienting and arousal in humans. Results draw attention to the important influence of the early environment in shaping later psychophysiological functioning.

The aim of the present study is to analyze how well physiological measures of sleepiness derived from pupillography and the Multiple Sleep Latency Test correlate with a subjective measure, the Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS) score. The results are based on data from 12 healthy participants, who underwent these tests every 2 hr from 7:00 a.m. until 11:00 p.m. Sleep latencies were correlated with four different variables derived from pupillography and the SSS score. The results indicate that the physiologically based variables correspond very well. This is reflected by similar patterns of time-of-day variations, a good agreement at the group level, and correlations at the individual level, whereas the SSS shows a quite different pattern of variation. The two physiological measures of sleepiness seem to reflect the same aspect of the level of tonic central nervous activation, which is not correlated with the subjective feeling of sleepiness.

Processing of emotion information by maltreated and control children was assessed with event-related brain potentials (ERPs). Maltreated children, for whom negative facial displays may be especially salient, and demographically comparable peers were tested to increase knowledge of differential processing of emotion information. ERPs were measured while children responded to pictures depicting facial displays of anger, fear, and happiness. Maltreated children showed larger P3b amplitude when angry faces appeared as targets than did control children; the two groups did not differ when targets were either happy or fearful facial expressions or for nontargets of any emotional content. These results indicate that aberrant emotional experiences associated with maltreatment may alter the allocation of attention and sensitivity that children develop to process specific emotion information.

Affective reactions to briefly presented pictures were investigated to determine whether fleeting stimuli engage the motivational systems mediating emotional responses. Emotional and neutral pictures were presented for 500 ms; heart rate, skin conductance, corrugator EMG, and the evoked startle reflex were measured. The time course of reflex modulation was similar to that obtained with longer (6 s) presentations, suggesting that picture processing continues in the absence of a sensory stimulus. Affective reactions found with more sustained presentation were also obtained, with more corrugator EMG activity for unpleasant pictures, and greater skin conductance reactivity for emotional pictures. Heart rate modulation, however, appears to rely on the presence of a sensory stimulus. The data also suggest that brief presentations of unpleasant pictures may result in less defensive activation than sustained presentation.

This study examined whether 7–9-year-old children preattentively build memories of constancy for individual stimulus features, and if these representations are affected by variability of other stimulus features. This was achieved by looking at the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential to a duration deviant occurring in a stimulus environment in which one or two other features constantly changed. Performance data were also collected, to look at the correspondence between the effects of this manipulation on preattentive and intentional deviance detection. MMN data indicated that the children built a preattentive feature-based memory of constancy that was not affected by the number of varying features. In contrast, intentional deviance detection was considerably impaired by the introduction of feature variability. This dissociation is at variance with previous studies that usually report close association between MMN and behavior.

This study examined the acute immunological effects of two laboratory stressors, expected to evoke distinct patterns of cardiac autonomic activity; namely an “active coping” time-paced memory test, and a “passive coping” stressful video showing surgical operations. We measured salivary S-IgA, IgA-subclasses (IgA1, IgA2), and secretory component (SC). SC is responsible for the transport of S-IgA across the epithelium, and thus a rate-determining step in S-IgA secretion. Thirty-two male undergraduates were subjected to both stressors and a control video (a didactic television program). The memory test induced a typical “fight-flight” response, characterized by increases in heart rate and blood pressure in association with a decrease in cardiac preejection period (PEP) and vagal tone. The surgical video produced a “conservation-withdrawal”-like response, characterized by an enhanced vagal tone, a decrease in heart rate, and a moderate sympathetic coactivation (as indicated by a shortened PEP and an increased systolic pressure). The memory test induced an increase in the concentration and, to a lesser extent, in the output of S-IgA, IgA1, and SC. The output of IgA2 was not significantly affected. For the surgical video, a different pattern emerged: During stressor exposure S-IgA remained unaffected, against the background of a small increase in SC output. However, 10 min after the surgical video S-IgA levels had decreased. This decrease in S-IgA was paralleled by a decrease in IgA1, but not IgA2. We conclude that acute stress can have both enhancing and suppressive effects on secretory immunity, the IgA1 subclass in particular. The mechanisms that underlie these divergent responses may include stressor-specific patterns of autonomic activation.

The aim of the present study was the comparative assessment of the 4-week test-retest stabilities of the saccadic CNV (sCNV) and saccadic reaction times (SRT) during the execution of pro- and antisaccades, as well as the stability of RT during execution of two neuropsychological tests of alertness and S-R incompatibility. Prosaccades were elicited under the 200-ms gap and overlap conditions, antisaccades under the overlap condition (64 trials each). The EEG was recorded from 25 channels with a DC amplifier (MES, Munich). Data of 20 healthy participants were statistically analyzed. We found high test-retest correlations for all SRT (.76 ≤ rtt ≤ .88) and neuropsychological (.62 ≤ rtt ≤ .88) measures. For the sCNV, coefficients ranging between .58 (pro/gap) and .77 (anti/overlap) were obtained. Whereas SRT were significantly faster during the second than during the first session, group means for the saccadic CNV were stable across the sessions. Our results suggest high 4-week stability of individual differences in SRT, and moderate to good stabilities of saccadic CNV amplitudes. Our results recommend these “traitlike” measures to be used in individual differences research.

In certain conditions patients with schizophrenia make markedly smaller (hypometric) saccades than controls. This hypometria has been thought to reflect dopaminergic blockade as a result of antipsychotic medication. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the performance of an antipsychotic-naïve group and an antipsychotic-treated group of first-episode schizophrenic patients on a predictive saccade paradigm. We explored the possibility that hypometria reflects a spatial working memory deficit by correlating performance on neuropsychological tests of mnemonic function with saccadic accuracy. Both the drug-naïve and treated schizophrenic patients made hypometric saccades when compared with a group of matched controls. Primary saccade amplitude also correlated significantly with performance on some of the neuropsychological tests. These results are discussed in terms of the roles of cortical dopamine and working memory deficits in schizophrenic patients.

We investigated psychophysiological responses to fear and anger inductions during real-life and imagination. Female participants (N = 158) were assigned to a fear-treatment, fear-control, anger-treatment, or anger-control group. Context (real-life, imagination) was varied in two sessions of fixed order. Eleven self-report and 29 somatovisceral variables were registered. Results showed that (a) except during anger imagination, control groups were emotionless; (b) in control groups, contexts prompted diverging somatovisceral responses, but similar emotion self-reports; except during fear imagination, the emotion inductions (c) were successful and (d) produced specific emotion reports; (e) during real-life, somatovisceral fear and anger responses exhibited a marked cardiovascular defense reflex; (f) in addition, real-life fear showed an adrenaline-like specific response pattern, whereas real-life anger showed specific forehead temperature and EMG extensor increases, accompanied by an elevated DBP during imagination. A Component Model of Somatovisceral Response Organization is proposed.

The pathogenic processes responsible for cardiovascular disease have their origins in childhood. Although children's measures of heart rate and blood pressure have been found to be reliable, the reliability of impedance cardiography derived measures have not been evaluated. Thirty-three children, ages 8–11 participated in two sessions. Stressors included serial subtraction, isometric handgrip, and mirror-image tracing. Results indicated the impedance measures showed moderately high temporal stability (average scores ravg = .74; difference scores ravg = .53) and intertask consistency (average scores ravg = .78; difference scores ravg = .53). Blood pressure demonstrated the lowest reliability; Heather index, preejection period, and stroke volume demonstrated the highest. These findings suggest children's cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stressors can be reliably and consistently assessed using impedance cardiography.

Carotid baroreceptor stimulation has been shown to dampen pain. This study tested, in 40 normotensive adults, the hypothesis that pain is lower during systole when arterial baroreceptor stimulation is maximal than diastole when stimulation is minimal. The sural nerve was stimulated electrocutaneously to obtain a nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) threshold, and then stimulation was delivered for 28 trials at 100% NFR threshold at seven intervals after the R-wave. Nociceptive responding was indexed by electromyographic (EMG) activity elicited in the biceps femoris. Significant variations in EMG activity occurred across the cardiac cycle, with less activity midcycle, indicating that the NFR response was attenuated during systole compared to diastole. Stimulation of baroreceptors by natural changes in blood pressure during the cardiac cycle dampened nociception, and accordingly, the data support the arterial baroreflex mechanism of hypertensive hypoalgesia.

We used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (erfMRI) techniques to examine the cerebral sites involved with target detection and novelty processing of auditory stimuli. Consistent with the results from a recent erfMRI study in the visual modality, target processing was associated with activation bilaterally in the anterior superior temporal gyrus, inferior and middle frontal gyrus, inferior and superior parietal lobules, anterior and posterior cingulate, thalamus, caudate, and the amygdala/hippocampal complex. Analyses of the novel stimuli revealed activation bilaterally in the inferior frontal gyrus, insula, inferior parietal lobule, and in the inferior, middle, and superior temporal gyri. These data suggest that the scalp recorded event-related potentials (e.g., N2 and P3) elicited during similar tasks reflect an ensemble of neural generators located in spatially remote cortical areas.

Recent findings suggested that the choice of the EEG reference might be a critical issue for the study of anterior asymmetry in the alpha band. The present paper investigates the validity of different reference schemes for the measurement of alpha asymmetry. A 32-channel resting EEG was recorded with a common vertex reference (Cz), and transformed into computer-averaged ears (A1 + A2), average reference (AR), and current source density derivations. A correlation analysis of an alpha asymmetry measure between all derivation schemes indicated a poor convergent validity for anterior sites but an excellent convergent validity for posterior sites. Further analyses suggested the presence of substantial alpha activity at the various reference sites (Cz, A1 + A2, AR), which might be similar in magnitude to anterior but smaller than posterior alpha. These findings suggest that the validity of a reference scheme is a function of the signal-to-noise ratio of the electrical activities at target and reference sites. The limitations of each reference scheme for the measurement of anterior alpha asymmetry are discussed.

The present study assessed alertness, memory, and performance following three schedules of ∼8 hr of sleep loss (slow, intermediate, and rapid accumulation) in comparison to an 8-hr time in bed (TIB) sleep schedule. Twelve healthy individuals aged 21–35 completed each of four conditions according to a Latin Square design: no sleep loss (8-hr TIB for 4 nights; 2300–0700), slow (6-hr TIB for 4 nights; 0100–0700), intermediate (4-hr TIB for 2 nights; 0300–0700), and rapid (0-hr TIB for 1 night) sleep loss. On each day, participants completed a multiple sleep latency test (MSLT), a probed-recall memory task, a psychomotor vigilance task, a divided attention task, and the Profile of Mood States. “Rapid” sleep loss produced significantly more impairment on tests of alertness, memory, and performance compared to the “slow” accumulation of a comparable amount of sleep loss. The impairing effects of sleep loss vary as a function of rate, suggesting the presence of a compensatory adaptive mechanism operating in conjunction with the accumulation of a sleep debt.

In the present study we evaluated the relationships between the P300 event-related potential and event-related desynchronization (ERD) of electroencephalographic alpha activity by simultaneously analyzing P300 as well as 7–10- and 10–14-Hz alpha ERD responses from auditory passive and active oddball conditions. We compared the effects of task (target vs. nontarget) and electrode (Fz, Cz, Pz) on P300 and ERD, and correlated P300 amplitude/latency with ERD maximal amplitude/latency across individuals. The major findings were that P300 as well as slow and fast alpha ERD manifested similar task and electrode effects. P300 preceded ERD and predicted individual variance of both slow and fast alpha ERD. The relationships of P300 with alpha ERD were different for the slow and fast alpha frequencies. These findings indicate that P300 and ERD are related such that slow and fast alpha ERDs are specifically guided or modified by the internal event(s) indexed by P300.

We tested the hypothesis that blood pressure (BP) responses to physical and mental stress are associated with polymorphisms in the β-2 adrenergic receptor (AR) gene. We studied normotensive, young, monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. The subjects underwent automated BP measurements at the brachial and digital arteries and were subjected to mental arithmetic and cold pressor stress. We used allele-specific PCR to genotype four single nucleotide polymorphisms in the β-2 AR gene. The most functionally relevant polymorphism in the β-2 AR gene, Arg16/Gly, was associated with systolic and diastolic BP under resting conditions, during mental arithmetic, and during the cold pressor test, as well as with the increase in diastolic BP during both forms of stress. These findings support a role for the β-2 AR gene in BP regulation. They also indicate that the β-2 AR gene influences the level of not only resting but also stress-related BP.