Protein metabolism is considered to be regulated by amino acids, with major consequences on tissue development. There is evidence that lysine greatly affects carcass composition and muscle growth. In particular, a drastic effect of dietary provision of lysine has been observed on breast muscle development in chickens. Other essential amino acids, such as threonine and valine, do not have as pronounced an effect as lysine on body composition. Increasing lysine can also improve chicken breast muscle quality by increasing its ultimate pH and water holding capacity, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Studies conducted over the last ten years indicate that, in addition to being substrates for protein synthesis, amino acids act as modulators of signal transduction pathways that control metabolism and cell functions. For instance, certain amino acids can modulate the activity of the intracellular protein kinases involved in the control of mRNA translation. Interestingly, enhanced responses to amino acids have been reported during the neonatal period, suggesting that early protein nutrition impacts on the development of broiler chicks. Methionine and cysteine have a very significant place among amino acids because they have several additional roles: they are precursors of essential molecules, for example cysteine is used for the synthesis of the antioxidant glutathione, and thus participates in the control of oxidative status, methionine is a source of the methyl groups needed for all biological methylation reactions, including methylation of DNA and histones, etc. These findings together indicate the importance of optimizing amino acid nutrition and providing a rationale for nutritional advice.

The use of pasture-based systems for poultry production is growing due to consumer demand for specialty ‘natural’ and ‘welfare-friendly’ meat and eggs. This paper discusses the various meanings of the term ‘pastured poultry’ and defines the different pasture-based poultry production systems. Considerations of poultry welfare standards provided through the specific system are also discussed. Production topics such as poultry genetics, outdoor access and pasture management are presented together with potential problems. Finally, various aspects of sustainability are analysed to estimate the environmental, economical and social benefits promoted by the pasture-based poultry production systems.

Heat stress is associated with compromised performance and productivity in poultry due to declines in feed intake, nutrient utilisation, growth rate, egg production and quality, feed efficiency and immunity. Additionally, heat stress is characterised by reduced antioxidant status in birds, resulting in increased oxidative stress. Heat stress is also linked with increased economic losses due to mortality of birds. Vitamin E is a major chain-breaking antioxidant in biological systems. An optimum response with supplementation of vitamin E in feed has been found to improve feed intake, body weight gain, feed efficiency, egg production and quality, nutrient digestibility, immune response and antioxidant status in poultry birds. This work compiles past and present information about the role of vitamin E in heat-stressed poultry.

Genetically modified (GM) plants constitute an increasingly significant part of the crops available on the feed market. To date, the most common GM plants have been those with enhanced agronomic traits. Known as ‘first-generation transgenic plants’, they are substantially equivalent to materials from conventional, parental plant lines. Recently, intensive experimental work using genetic engineering methods, have resulted in the production of transgenic plants with substantial changes in chemical composition, these are referred to as second-generation GM plants. The main objective of such transgenesis is to improve the nutritional properties of crops by increasing the level of desirable substances or decreasing the quantity of harmful compounds in the seeds. This review discusses the use of GM crops with enhanced nutritional properties as feed materials for poultry. On the basis of the information presented, it can be concluded that GM crops with improved nutritional value, enhanced available phosphorus content, an increased concentration of limiting amino acids, or containing genes expressing transgenic enzymes or antimicrobial substances could offer poultry producers considerable benefits.

This review focuses on a selected micro mineral, where the highlight is its role in meat quality. Minerals are important for optimising livestock and poultry performance. Initial symptoms of mineral imbalances, subclinical inadequacies, or severe deficiencies include depressed growth, body weight gain, poor feed utilisation efficiency, and reproductive efficiency. Dietary trace elements, particularly selenium, are able to induce physiological changes in muscle tissue, and they can alter meat quality in livestock and poultry. Bearing in mind the role of selenium in the quality of meat produced, the limited research into the association of selenium and skin health has been included in the review.

Moulting is a natural phenomenon in birds. Temperature variation and photoperiodic changes induce circadian and circannual rhythms, manifested by changes in the neural and endocrine systems, ultimately causing physiological processes resulting in a moult. The concept of induced moulting by feed deprivation arose during the early part of the 20th century as a solution to economic challenges of decreased egg production in commercial layer flocks toward the end of the first laying cycle as they approached the moult phase. Efficiency of feed removal programs in enhancing post moult productivity and economical feasibility insured a gain in popularity by the 1930's. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the U.S. However, moulting with feed withdrawal caused risk to the health of birds by impairing the immune system and increasing susceptibility to various pathogens, especially Salmonella enteritidis (SE). During the 1980s, increased incidence of gastroenteritis due to SE was linked to forced moulting. The importance of challenges for conventional forced moulting was realized and animal activists, welfare organizations, researchers, consumers, and producers realized that alternative moulting methods were necessary. Ultimately, the United Egg Producers Scientific Advisory Committee, having dealt with the issue of feed withdrawal for moulting since the early 1990's, amended the Animal Husbandry Guidelines for U.S. Egg Laying Flocks to specify the use of non feed withdrawal moult methods after January 1, 2006. Furthermore, moulting hens would have to be fed nutritionally adequate and palatable food suitable for non-egg producing hens. Though metals or hormones are efficient moult inducers, results of studies showed that they had disadvantages like residual effects and physiological alterations, respectively. Diets supplemented with low nutritious feed ingredients are safe and demonstrate promising outcomes. Unconventional feedstuffs such as coconut meal and cumin seed meal are successfully used in layer and non feed removal moults in Asian and Middle Eastern countries. In the western U.S. (especially in California), local ingredients like safflower meal and tomato pomace are promising alternatives.

The food industry operates in an explicitly dynamic environment which demands constant adjustments and responses. The purpose of this paper is to identify important elements of brand positioning by reviewing literature and research into successful poultry brands in Slovenia. A investigation into leading Slovenian poultry brands was used to illustrate the importance of certain elements in repositioning brands in competitive markets. The analysis of competitors in the food market in Slovenia, Austria, Germany, Czech Republic and Switzerland, the analysis of the branding, the results of primary qualitative market research, and the development and testing of possible concepts all offer a basic starting-point for new market positioning. The method used for the implementation of the primary research and for the subsequent testing of the concept was via focus groups. The presented conceptual model for strategic positioning of a brand in a competitive market of high-volume products can enable the definition of various concepts for the new positioning in markets.

The article investigates the importance of values of the perceived brand name from the external point of view perceived by the sample of consumers. Based on the stratified survey and the quantitative research the relationship between country of origin (COO), marketing mix elements and the perceived brand name value was noted. The emphasis is placed on establishing an impact of COO on the perceived brand name value and its impact on the latter compared to the selected marketing mix elements. The article presents the structural model of a conceptual relationship between the COO and the perceived brand name value. A measuring instrument and procedures used to check reliability and validity of the structural model of the product's perceived brand name value were developed. The conceptual model and the relationships within the model were evaluated by a modelling that used linear structural equations on the selected sample of respondents, which enabled verification of the conceptual model by empirical data.

The following review details the development and current status of poultry meat in terms of marketing, purchasing and consumer decisions within the country of Greece. The aim of this paper is to identify Greek consumers’ perceptions of poultry meat. Taking into account that little research has been conducted in the poultry sector in Greece generally and on consumer perceptions specifically, these results will help to provide solutions in strategic marketing.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Mycotoxins in feed are considered the second most serious issue in the poultry industry, following increased feed prices. There are different types of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, patulin, but the most important are aflatoxins and ochratoxins. Ochratoxin is known as a nephrotoxin as it damages kidney tissues predominantly, whereas aflatoxin has more adverse effects upon the liver. Diagnosis and determination of toxins can be done in tissues and feed samples by using different techniques such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer liquid chromatography (TLC), and fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA). Treatment of mycotoxicosis can be done by decontamination or detoxification of feed by using mycotoxin binders, plant preparations (nutraceuticals) and vitamins. Mycotoxicosis can be controlled by using transgenic crops and improving harvesting management, storing feed in good environmental conditions and fresh feed for the birds. Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) should be referred to for the control of mycotoxins in the food chain.

Under current practices, broiler parent stock (broiler breeders) encounter several welfare problems, such as feed restriction and injury during mating. Intensive selection for production traits, especially growth rate, is associated with increased nutritious requirement and thus feed consumption, but also reproductive dysfunctions and decreased sexual activity in broiler breeders. A resulting serious welfare problem is the subsequent severe feed restriction which is applied during rearing, in order to prevent health problems and to achieve better egg production. This severe feed restriction has negative effects on bird welfare as it causes chronic stress resulting from hunger. Recent research has focused on management practices to alleviate the negative effect of this feed restriction. Using both a more fibrous feed and an appetite suppressant seems most successful. There are welfare concerns involved in the mating of broiler breeders. In many countries mutilations (beak trimming, despurring and toe clipping) are carried out in male broiler breeders as a standard procedure to prevent excessive damage to the hens during mating. It has been reported that broiler breeder males show low libido but, at the same time, may be aggressive and show rough behaviour during mating, which can cause severe injuries to the hens, although some injuries may be caused by over-mating hens. Current studies aim to develop management practices to reduce hen injury due to over-mating and improve the sexual behaviour in both males and females. In the last part of the review, an examination of how breeding companies are taking welfare into consideration in their commercial selection scheme is made. In practice, although for example reduced mortality and some health criteria are included in selection programs and some alternative breeds as used, other welfare issues remain, such as feed restriction during rearing.

Heat stress can induce hyperthermia in poultry. A reduction in heat load can be achieved by increasing the possibilities for dissipation, decreasing the level of heat production or by changing the thermal production pattern within a day. Strategies to reduce the negative effects of heat stress can be based on a specific feeding strategy, such as restricted feeding. Feed that is offered long enough before a hot period can ameliorate the harmful effects of high temperature. Another strategy may be to use choice feeding from different feed ingredients, rich in protein or in energy. With such self-selection, the chicken may adjust its intake of individual components, allowing the bird to optimise the heat load associated with the metabolism of the ingested nutrients. Additional promising strategies involve offering a choice between feeds with a different feed particle size or structure. A large particle size contributes to the development of the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT), especially the gizzard and the caeca. A large gizzard will maximize the grinding process and potentially ease digestion down the GIT, thereby reducing heat production associated with digestive processing. Also wet feeding may be profitable under heat stress conditions as well. Feeding wet diets may facilitate an increased water intake and larger particle sizes can limit water excretion in droppings, resulting in more water being available for evaporation during panting, hence cooling the bird. In conclusion, these feeding strategies may help to reduce heat production peaks, facilitate evaporative activity and/or decreases the heat load, resulting in beneficial effects on performance and health of the bird kept in more tropical areas worldwide.

Moulting is a complex process, induced by diet manipulation, which results in renewal of reproductive system and subsequent better production. Conventionally, moulting has been practised by utilising feed withdrawal in many developing countries, however, this has been associated with many drawbacks. Alternative types of moulting practices have been studied, however, these are not practised widely due to a range of undesirable effects. As a consequence of the beneficial effects on laying hens, better post-moult performance and a less criticised method according to poultry welfare advocates, Zn-induced moulting has been considered superior to forced-moulting. Different aspects of Zn-induced moulting related to physiology and production, with special reference to immunohistochemistry of pituitary gland as affected by Zn-induce moulting are included in this review.

This paper reviews a double-bootstrap data envelopment analysis of the performance of the Greek poultry sector for the period of 1994-2007. The purpose for implementing this method is to obtain consistent inferences in measuring technical efficiency and in identifying its determinants. The findings suggest that on average, technical inefficiency is present in the Greek poultry industry. Under the variable return to scale specification, technical efficiency decreased to 90% in 2007 from 94% in 1994. In order to explain the factors influencing technical efficiency, the efficiency scores estimated in this study were regressed by using specific variables of sample firms and industry context. The results of the regression analysis show statistically significant positive impacts on performance are factors like market size, productive flexibility and being a member of a firm group, with size and innovation activity of the firm being negative influences. In contrast, the integration of Greece into European Economic and Monetary Union and several other capabilities of firms, related to age, vertical integration, capital intensity and skill of employees, did not have any influence. These results may help managers and policy-makers to determine adequate policies and practices for achieving performance.

Dermanyssus gallinae is the most economically important ectoparasite of laying hens in Europe. Control of D. gallinae is already hampered by issues of pesticide resistance and product withdrawal. With the prohibition of conventional cages in 2012 and the resulting switch to more structurally complex housing which favours red mite, the importance of managing this pest is expected to increase. Integrated Pest Management (IPM), as often employed in agricultural pest control, may be a way to address these issues where a combination of different novel control methods could be used with/without conventional management techniques to provide a synergistic and more efficacious effect. Work at in our laboratory has shown that essential oils, including thyme and garlic, may act as effective D. gallinae repellents and acaricides, whilst preliminary vaccine studies have demonstrated a significant increase in mite mortality in vitro using concealed antigens. Work elsewhere has considered predators and fungi for D. gallinae control and other husbandry techniques such as manipulating temperature and lighting regimes in poultry units. This paper will review the available and emerging techniques for D. gallinae control and discuss which techniques might be suitable for inclusion in an integrated management programme (e.g. synthetic acaricides and diatomaceous earths).

L-carnitine has indispensable functions in intermediary metabolism and is received by endogenous synthesis and from exogenous sources. It plays an obligate role in fatty acid metabolism by directing fatty acids into the mitochondrial oxidative pathway through the action of specialised acyltransferases. In poultry production, L-carnitine has a multi functional purpose, which includes: growth promotion, strengthening the immune system, antioxidant effects and improving semen quality. The concentration of L-carnitine in animals varies widely across species, tissue type, and nutritional status of the animal. It has been suggested that the L-carnitine requirement may be increased under certain circumstances such as via higher performance, various stress conditions and where the diet is deficient in animal protein sources. The review of L-carnitine functions uniquely includes the main aspects of this consequential feed supplementary inclusion in poultry nutrition.

Avian spermatozoa are characterised by high proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) which is associated with increased susceptibility to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation. Recent advances in avian reproduction have focused on the potential of ROS as one of the prime mediators of infertility. Although ROS are involved in many physiological functions of spermatozoa, their excessive production may result in oxidative stress. The production of ROS is enhanced during unfavourable environmental and stressful conditions, and an effective scavenging system is essential to counter the production of ROS. Antioxidants are compounds that suppress the formation of ROS. Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants build a powerful antioxidant system in avian semen which is able to protect it against ROS and lipid peroxidation. The balance between ROS and antioxidants in avian semen is a fundamental determinant of membrane integrity, sperm viability and fertilising ability. A regulating role of ROS in sperm function in mammalian sperm along with their counteractive mechanisms have been extensively studied; but their role for avian species reproduction remains to be elucidated. Various antioxidants belonging both to enzymatic and non-enzymatic groups can counter oxidative stress. Hence the rationale of using antioxidants is advocated.

Adding value to eggs, being a very old concept in foods, is practiced for supplementing nutritive values along with provision for ease of handling too. Some of the value-added egg products include tea/century eggs (for extended shelf life of egg products); low cholesterol eggs (preferred by health conscious customers); and ‘super’ eggs produced through use of either herbal supplements, inclusion of drugs, manipulation of dietary protein and energy content, poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), or additional vitamins and minerals in the poultry diet. These are considered helpful in reducing the risk of heart diseases and in some cancerous conditions.

However, the focus of this review is to concentrate on the production of salted eggs and the process of brining. Sales of salted eggs have been quite encouraging for on its own merits. People in many parts of the globe, prepare and market salted eggs as part of their preservative/extra value but very little scientific information has been available regarding the standardised brining technology and storage quality of salted chicken eggs. Apart from this, no information has been available on the hatching performance of salted eggs, subsequent growth performance of progeny, broiler chick quality and their immune-competence against disease. In view of the requirement for information, it was deemed imperative to consolidate the relevant information to determine future research needs.

Avian disease, regarded as one of the crucial aspects influencing poultry production, has restricted the development of the poultry industry for a long period. Although traditional approaches, e.g. vaccination and bio-security measures, have played an indispensable role in diagnosing, treating and preventing diseases, poultry are still threatened by various diseases. Nowadays, with the development of molecular and quantitative genetics, some poultry diseases can be addressed by breeding for disease resistance. In this paper, the research progress of resistance breeding in poultry is reviewed, including genetics, methods, challenges and opportunities for the poultry industry.

The rearing of indigenous chickens is an integral part of the smallholder farming system in the tropics, where they are kept by the rural poor to fulfil multiple functions. Their special adaptation to environmental stresses and poor husbandry practices has made them the choice of breed for smallholder production systems. However, little effort has been made to characterise the indigenous chicken and their production environment, despite the increase in emerging works recently. This paper aims at reviewing the current state of phenotypic characterisation work on indigenous chickens in the tropics. By and large, studies conducted on indigenous chickens to evaluate their performance usually ignore their unique physiological and behavioural characteristics and their socio-cultural values. Moreover, unfair comparisons with exotic chickens are not uncommon, especially for yield related traits. Due to their high genetic diversity, there is also remarkable variation in the performance of indigenous chickens within and among breeds. This variation is an important genetic attribute of the indigenous chicken, whereby selection can act to improve their performance. It is recommended that characterisation works use a common set of descriptions developed by international institutions with proven poultry experience so results across countries and regions can be accurately compared.