The year 2004 marks the 10th anniversary of the decision of the INS governing board to establish the Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society as its official publication. I was honored that the governing Board selected me to be the founding editor. With my term as Editor-in-Chief coming to a close at the end of this year, I wanted to take this opportunity to provide our readers with a few brief reflections, and in particular to offer my sincere appreciation to the many individuals who have contributed to JINS' success.

I am very honored to be the new Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, JINS, beginning in January 2005. It is a daunting task to follow in Dr. Grant's footsteps. He has done a stellar job of developing this journal from its conception to its current status, and the statistics that he presents tell only part of the story. He appropriately recognizes all of the help he has received, but JINS' success is largely due to his vision, organization, innovation, and leadership. In order to concretely recognize that vision and its continuing influence on JINS, Dr. Grant's name will be listed on the cover of JINS as its Founding Editor. He had the vision to develop a journal that “fits” the INS from the standpoint of its breadth, multidisciplinary contributions, and scientific rigor. He selected and has led an impressive group of senior editors with expertise in a variety of areas, and these editors have provided a level of editorial expertise that would not be possible with a single Editor-in-Chief. Dr. Grant has also brought electronic submission and review to JINS. Web-based submission began August 1. Even though electronic submission and review should facilitate logistics, the quality of JINS will still be most dependent on high quality peer review provided by the Editorial Board and a large group of dedicated reviewers.

HIV-seropositive (HIV+) drug users show impaired performance on measures of integrity of prefrontal–subcortical systems. The Iowa Gambling Task (GT) is mediated primarily through ventromedial–prefrontal systems, and poor performance on this measure (“cognitive impulsivity”) is common among substance dependent individuals (SDIs) as well as patients with disease involving prefrontal–subcortical systems (e.g., Huntington disease). We hypothesized that HIV+ SDIs might be more vulnerable to cognitive impulsivity when compared with HIV-seronegative (HIV−) SDIs because recent studies report evidence of additive effects of HIV serostatus and drug dependence on cognition. Further, working memory is considered a key component of GT performance and is reliably impaired among HIV+ SDIs compared to controls. We administered the GT to 46 HIV+ and 47 well-matched HIV− males with a past or current history of substance dependence. In addition, we evaluated correlations between subjects' scores on the GT and on a delayed nonmatch to sample (DNMS) task in order to test if working memory deficits accounted for cognitive impulsivity among the HIV+ subjects. The HIV+ subjects performed significantly more poorly on the GT compared to the HIV− group but this effect could not be explained by working memory deficits. Implications of these findings for future basic and applied studies of HIV and substance dependence are discussed. (JINS, 2004, 10, 931–938.)

The Hooper Visual Organization Test (VOT), a commonly applied neuropsychological test of visual spatial ability, is used for assessing patients with suspected right hemisphere, or parietal lobe involvement. A controversy has developed over whether the inferences of this test metric can be assumed to involve global, lateralized, or regional functionality. In this study, the characteristic visual organization and object naming aspects of the VOT task presentation were adapted to a functional MR imaging (fMRI) paradigm to probe the neuroanatomic correlates of this neuropsychological test. Whole brain fMRI mapping results are reported on a cohort of normal subjects. Bilateral fMRI responses were found predominantly in the posterior brain, in regions of superior parietal lobules, ventral temporal-occipital cortex, and posterior visual association areas, and to a lesser extent, the frontal eye fields bilaterally, and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The results indicate a general brain region or network in which VOT impairment, due to its visuospatial and object identification demands, is possible to be detected. Discussion is made of interpretive limitations when adapting neuropsychological tests to fMRI analysis. (JINS, 2004, 10, 939–947.)

Based on the assumption that cognitive impairment in MS is consistent with subcortical dementia, a battery of neuropsychological tests was assembled that included measures of executive function (Tower of London and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), verbal learning and memory (a paired associates learning test), and speeded information processing (Stroop Color Word Interference Test). The battery was administered to patients with relapsing and primary progressive MS and to healthy controls. Differences between patients and controls occurred on several of the measures. However, when differences with respect to fatigue and depression were statistically controlled, the only differences that remained significant involved measures relating to the speed of information processing. Patients performed more slowly than controls, with the disparity being greater for relapsing patients than for those with primary progressive disease. The slowing was evident on measures of automatic as well as controlled processing and regardless of whether speed was an explicit feature of successful performance or recorded unobstrusively while the patient concentrated on planning a correct solution to a problem. Parallels were noted between cognitive slowing associated with MS and that of normal aging. (JINS, 2004, 10, 948–956.)

In recent years there has been extensive research in neuropsychological sequelae of a variety of etiologies, including traumatic brain injury, dementia, stroke, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and cardiac surgery. With the exception of stroke and cardiac surgery, significantly fewer studies have been published regarding neuropsychological outcome in adults with disorders associated with anoxia or ischemia. Outcomes research in anoxic or ischemic disorders in pediatric patient populations are even more limited.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a fairly common nocturnal breathing disorder, affecting 2–4% of individuals. Although OSA is associated with medical morbidity, its most functionally disruptive effects in adults appear to be neuropsychological in nature. Research on the neuropsychological effects of pediatric OSA has been limited. This study compared the neuropsychological functioning of school-aged children with OSA to that of healthy children. The primary goal was to clarify the presence and pattern of neuropsychological morbidity associated with pediatric OSA. Sleep was assessed with parent-report questionnaires and laboratory sleep studies. Neuropsychological functioning was assessed by formal tests and parent- and teacher-report questionnaires. Data indicated OSA-related cognitive and behavioral impairment that was particularly marked on measures of behavior regulation and some aspects of attention and executive functioning. Minimal effects were observed on measures of intelligence, verbal memory, or processing speed. Exploratory analyses failed to indicate any clear relationship between neuropsychological functioning and objective indexes of hypoxia or sleep disruption, though the sample was small. These data add to a growing literature which suggests that significant neuropsychological deficits are associated with pediatric OSA. Findings suggest a pattern of neuropsychological morbidity that is similar but not identical to that seen in adult OSA. (JINS, 2004, 10, 962–975.)

We investigated attentional outcome after childhood stroke and orthopedic diagnosis in medical controls. Twenty-nine children with focal stroke lesions and individually matched children with clubfoot or scoliosis were studied with standardized attention and neuroimaging assessments. Stroke lesions were quite varied in location and commonly involved regions implicated in Posner's model of attention networks. Children with stroke lesions performed significantly more poorly regarding attention function compared with controls. Performance on the Starry Night, a test demanding alerting and sensory-orienting but not executive attention function, was significantly associated with lesion size in the alerting and sensory-orienting networks but not the executive attention network. Furthermore, earlier age at lesion acquisition was significantly associated with poorer attention function even when lesion size was controlled. These findings support the theory of dissociable networks of attention and add to evidence from studies of children with diffuse and focal brain damage that early insults are associated with worse long-term outcomes in many domains of neuropsychological function. In addition, these results may provide clues towards the understanding of mechanisms underlying attention in children. (JINS, 2004, 10, 976–986.)

Few follow-up studies of children with very low birth weight (VLBW, <1,500 g) have examined neuropsychological sequelae at later ages or neonatal risks as predictors of these outcomes. The present study assessed cognitive skills at mean age 16 years in 48 participants with <750 g birth weight, 47 with 750–1,499 g birth weight, and 52 term-born controls. Our major objectives were to delineate the long-term cognitive consequences of VLBW, and to determine if risks for periventricular brain insults accounted for variations in outcomes. Analysis revealed poorer outcomes for the <750 g group than for term-born controls on nearly all measures, with specific impairments in visual–motor skills, spatial memory, and executive function. Predictors of outcome for participants with VLBW included lower birth weight, lower weight for gestational age, and a longer period of oxygen requirement for chronic lung disease. The longer-term consequences of VLBW are consistent with expectations based on early brain pathology and suggest limitations to functional plasticity. (JINS, 2004, 10, 987–1004.)

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by lung injury and hypoxemia, has a high mortality rate, and is associated with significant morbidity including cognitive and emotional sequelae and decreased quality of life. There is limited information regarding which of these factors are associated with decreased quality of life. This study assessed the relationships between quality of life, cognitive and emotional function in ARDS survivors at 1-year post-hospital discharge. Sixty-six ARDS survivors were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests, measures of emotional function and quality of life 1 year post-hospital discharge. At 1 year 45% of the ARDS patients had cognitive sequelae and 29% had mild to moderate symptoms of depression and anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and intensive care unit length of stay were significantly correlated with decreased quality of life. Cognitive impairments did not correlate with decreased quality of life. Illness severity and emotional function, but not cognitive sequelae, are associated with decreased quality of life 1 year following ARDS. ARDS is common and may result in significant cognitive and emotional morbidity and decreased quality of life. (JINS, 2004, 10, 1005–1017.)

In their recent article, Delis et al. (2003) criticized the use of factor analysis for evaluating construct validity. Focusing on a key component of their argument, they reported a high correlation between two memory test scores in a community sample but a low correlation between the same scores in a sample of people with Alzheimer's disease. As a consequence, they argued that the presence of a “dissociation” between the two variables in the Alzheimer's sample contradicted the single-factor result derived from studies of community samples and other clinical groups: “Two variables that share a high degree of variance in normal participants … and thus appear to measure a unitary cognitive construct, can dissociate into two distinct functions, but only in certain homogeneous patient populations” (p. 940).

In a recent study, we empirically demonstrated limitations in traditional ways that psychologists have used factor analysis to define cognitive constructs (Delis et al., 2003). Our criticism of factor analysis was not directed at this statistical method per se, but rather at how it has often been employed by psychologists to test cognitive constructs. Specifically, we pointed out shortcomings in using this technique with normal or mixed clinical populations. We argued that the factor-analytic studies of memory tests with normal or mixed clinical populations often yielded solutions in which measures of immediate and delayed memory loaded on the same factor. This particular use of factor analysis can mask important distinctions between critical cognitive functions that have been demonstrated using other research methods, such as experimental manipulations or case studies. We then conducted a factor-analytic study that empirically demonstrated that, whereas immediate and delayed memory measures load on the same factor when using normal or mixed clinical samples, these measures load on separate factors when using a homogenous population of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). We drew the conclusion that factor analytic techniques can still be used as one method for exploring conceptual relationships, but only if these methods are used as part of a systematic, programmatic exploration involving separate confirmatory factor analyses using multiple homogenous patient populations. In the first published reply to our study, Larrabee (2003) pointed out other limitations, stating that application of factor-analytic techniques to a single test that yields multiple measures may result in global, simplistic solutions due to method variance, which is the tendency of different variables from the same test to correlate significantly.

Paul Broca's famous case reports of language impairment following left hemisphere lesions were issued in the 1860s. Since that time, much has been written about the assessment, typology, and neural underpinnings of aphasia. The two books we had the pleasure of reading and reviewing, Assessment of Aphasia and Aphasia and its Therapy, present well thought out and thorough reviews of aphasia literature, the first focusing on assessment issues, the latter focusing more on issues of and theoretical approaches to treatment. The books are united in their insistence that the field of aphasia research, from assessment to rehabilitation, be grounded in theory and a defensible conceptual model. This overarching theme presents itself throughout the entire corpus of both texts. Just as the clinician conducts a thorough assessment before initiating treatment, so too will this review begin with the book focused predominantly on aphasia assessment, before moving on to aphasia therapy.

This is an edited collection of papers that focuses on various aspects of the most recent revision of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS–III) and Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS–III). The papers in this volume fall into three broad areas. The first section of the book (and part of one of the subsequent chapters) provides an overview of the history of the development of measures of memory and intelligence, with particular emphasis on the Wechsler scales. These chapters are thoroughly delightful, and the only shortcoming is that they are too brief. Indeed, though over 100 pages are devoted to this topic, there are a number of questions about the measures which could have been answered but weren't. (For example, given the cost and time pressures on psychological assessment, why were the tests—particularly the WMS–III—lengthened? Why, for example, include a measure of list learning when Psychological Corporation already published the California Verbal Learning Test? Why, after all these years, hasn't the WAIS Information subtest been dropped or the content made less specific to the United States? What led to the decision to include a verbally mediated measure of visual memory on the WMS–III, a decision which can make it harder to evaluate visual memory in aphasics?) Given how involved they were in the revisions of the WAIS and WMS, the editors would appear to have been uniquely positioned to provide a more in-depth discussion of the issues that arose during this process and how these issues were resolved.

Hines finds it impossible to make distinctions between the terms “sex” and “gender,” hence their refreshing, non-political interchangeability in her new book. After examining hormonal and brain-based data, Hines concludes that science cannot yet inform us which differences are determined biologically, socially, and/or both.

In an uncertain world, people and other animals make their living by predicting which of alternative courses of action is likely to yield the best return. For humans the return might take many forms, such as material, financial, social, or esthetic, but the underlying currency involved for any species is “inclusive fitness,” the rate at which an animal's genes are propagated. Professor Glimcher demonstrates that Economics methods are applicable to decision-making under conditions of uncertainty, both at the behavioral and the neuronal level. This approach has been called neuro-economics, although “econometrics” characterizes it more precisely. Econometrics is the application of statistical and mathematical methods in the field of economics to test and quantify economic theories and the solution to economic problems. Specifically, individuals' decision-making benefits from knowing how likely a response is to be reinforced, and knowing the reinforcement's value. Even single neurons are sensitive to these variables. Glimcher reaches beyond the heavily studied neural substrate for sensation and response to predictive neural circuitry that factors in the prior probability of reward, and its expected value. Indeed, he and his colleagues have identified neurons in monkey's inferior parietal lobule whose firing rates reflect both probability and value.

Minutes from the Thirty-Second Annual International Neuropsychological Society Meeting: Baltimore, Maryland

Members Present: Erin Bigler, Jason Brandt, Gordon Chelune, H. Branch Coslett, Bruce Crosson, Ritva Laaksonen, Ann Marcotte, Daniel Tranel, Faraneh Vargha-Khadem, Elizabeth Warrington, Ann Watts, Robert Bornstein (ex officio)

Members Absent: Lucia Braga, Leslie Gonzalez-Rothi, Sandra Weintraub