Impedance spectroscopy is widely adopted for probing the charge and charge mobility of soft ion-conducting media, such as synthetic membranes and biological tissue. The spectra exhibit a variety of distinctive signatures, but the physical basis of these is not well understood, e.g. models have not previously accounted for viscoelasticity, hydrodynamics or microstructural heterogeneity. This study explores a physically grounded continuum model that captures how these factors shape conductivity spectra. Nonlinear thermodynamics and linearised dynamics of a viscous electrolyte and compressible, elastic polymer network are coupled under the forcing of an oscillatory electric field. The model is solved in a one-dimensional spatially periodic unit cell, reporting conductivity and dielectric permittivity spectra, including Nyquist representations. Whereas rigid microstructures exhibit ion-diffusion-controlled relaxation, which manifests as a low-frequency dielectric ‘constant’, hydrodynamic and elastic forces contribute to a strongly diverging dielectric permittivity at low frequencies for heterogeneous anionic microstructures. The model also captures distinctive characteristics of experimentally reported impedance spectra for films bearing alternating layers of cationic and anionic charge, again highlighting the role of coupled hydrodynamic, elastic and electrical forces. Sufficiently thin and highly charged bilayers exhibit a notably low high-frequency conductivity. This is explained by strong low-frequency electrostatic polarisation and counter-ion release. The one-dimensional solutions computed herein provide a foundation for much more challenging computations in two and three dimensions.

A comprehensive direct numerical simulation of electroconvection (EC) turbulence caused by strong unipolar charge injection in a two-dimensional cavity is performed. The EC turbulence has strong fluctuations and intermittency in the closed cavity. Several dominant large-scale structures are found, including two vertical main rolls and a single primary roll. The flow mode significantly influences the charge transport efficiency. A nearly $Ne \sim T^{1/2}$ scaling stage is observed, and the optimal $Ne$ increment is related to the mode with two vertical rolls, while the single roll mode decreases the charge transport efficiency. As the flow strength increases, EC turbulence transitions from an electric force-dominated mode to an inertia-dominated mode. The former utilizes the Coulomb force more effectively and allocates more energy to convection. The vertical mean profiles of charge, electric field and energy budget provide intuitive information on the spatial energy distribution. With the aid of the energy-box technique, a detailed energy transport evolution is illustrated with changing electric Rayleigh numbers. This exploration of EC turbulence can help explain more complicated electrokinetic turbulence mechanisms and the successful utilization of Fourier mode decomposition and energy-box techniques is expected to benefit future EC studies.

An experiment on convective flows induced by the dielectrophoretic force was performed under the microgravity condition provided during a sounding rocket flight. The dielectrophoretic force possesses a non-conservative term that can be seen as resulting from an electric gravity. That gravity can be responsible for an electric Rayleigh–Bénard convection between a hot inner cylinder and a cold outer cylinder when an electric field is applied in the radial direction. Four cells with independent temperature and electric field controls allowed the investigation of eight different values of the electric Rayleigh number relatively close to the onset of the thermo-electric instability. A linear stability analysis is performed to predict the stability threshold and the evolution of the growth rate of the instability. The three-dimensional structure of the flow is captured by simultaneous particle image velocimetry and by shadowgraphy. The amplitude of the instability modes and the time evolution of the flow is analysed, and various methods are proposed to extrapolate the experimental critical value of the electric Rayleigh number for the onset of convection. The measured critical electric Rayleigh number is in agreement with the prediction of the linear stability theory. The comparison of the new experimental results with previous ones from parabolic flight campaigns highlights the importance of long-term microgravity for the achievement of thermal convection at low values of the control parameters.

We study numerically a sequence of eddies in two-dimensional electrohydrodynamics (EHD) flows of a dielectric liquid, driven by an electric potential difference between a hyperbolic blade electrode and a flat plate electrode (or the blade–plate configuration). The electrically driven flow impinges on the plate to generate vortices, which resemble Moffatt eddies (Moffatt, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 18, 1964, pp. 1–18). Such a phenomenon in EHD was first reported in the experimental work of Perri et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 900, 2020, A12). We conduct direct numerical simulations of the EHD flow with three Moffatt-type eddies in a large computational domain at moderate electric Rayleigh numbers ($T$, quantifying the strength of the electric field). The ratios of size and intensity of the adjacent eddies are examined, and they can be compared favourably to the theoretical prediction of Moffatt; interestingly, the quantitative comparison is remarkably accurate for the two eddies in the far field. Our investigation also shows that a larger $T$ strengthens the vortex intensity, and a stronger charge diffusion effect enlarges the vortex size. A sufficiently large $T$ can further result in an oscillating flow, consistent with the experimental observation. In addition, a global stability analysis of the steady blade–plate EHD flow is conducted. The global mode is characterised in detail at different values of $T$. When $T$ is large, the confinement effect of the geometry in the centre region may lead to an increased oscillation frequency. This work contributes to the quantitative characterisation of the Moffatt-type eddies in EHD flows.

We investigate deterministic and stochastic bifurcations in electroconvecitve flows of a dielectric liquid confined between two parallel plates subjected to a strong unipolar injection by direct numerical simulations. A long-standing discrepancy of linear instability criteria between the experiment and theory exists in this flow. We here test the hypothesis that the discrepancy may be related to the inhomogeneity in ion-exchange membranes used in experiments, contrasted by the homogeneous ion injection assumed in theoretical and numerical analyses. To study this effect, we consider stochastic boundary conditions around linear criticality and first bifurcations in this flow. For a complete presentation of flow bifurcations, deterministic bifurcation analysis (without stochasticity) is first performed to investigate primary bifurcations in this flow by progressively increasing the strength of electric field. Lyapunov spectrum and dimension are calculated and probed to characterise the chaotic motion therein. Our results confirm the high dimensionality of chaos in electroconvective flows and reveal for the first time that its chaos is extensive in a range of finite-sized systems. We then conduct stochastic bifurcation analyses by considering random perturbations in the boundary conditions of charge density and electric potential. Owing to the subcritical nature of electroconvective flows, the linear instability criteria under stochastic boundaries are closer to the experimental values than former theoretical and numerical results (assuming the homogeneous charge injection) for different levels of stochasticity, which confirms the hypothesis aforementioned. Furthermore, stochasticity can also enhance the efficiency of ionic transport.

The dynamics of flow of a dielectric fluid in a vertical cylindrical annulus with a fixed temperature difference and an increasing alternating electric tension has been investigated using a direct numerical simulation (DNS). The temperature difference imposed on the cylindrical surfaces induces a radial temperature gradient perpendicular to the ground gravity which generates a baroclinic flow ascending near the hot surface and descending near the cold one. The electric field coupled with the permittivity gradient generates a dielectrophoretic buoyancy force which is a source of vorticity. Above a critical value of the electric tension, the flow bifurcates to a pattern of stationary columnar vortices. These columnar vortices which characterize the thermoelectric convection are not axially invariant, in contrast with classical Taylor columns. They bifurcate to regular wave patterns and then to spatio-temporal chaotic patterns when the electric field intensity is increased. The flow and temperature fields, the kinetic energy and the enstrophy of thermoelectric convective regimes are computed for different values of the electric tension.

The effect of an externally applied electric field on the motion of an interface between two viscous dielectric fluids is investigated. We first develop a powerful, efficient and widely applicable boundary integral method to compute the interface dynamics in a general multiphysics model comprising coupled Laplace and Stokes flow problems in a periodic half-space. In particular, we exploit the relevant Stokes and Laplace Green's functions to reduce the problem to one defined on the interfacial part of the domain alone. Secondly, motivated by recent experimental work that seeks to underpin the development of switchable liquid optical devices, we concentrate on a fluid–air interface and derive asymptotic approximations suitable to describe the behaviour of a thin film of fluid above an array of electrodes. In this case, the problem is reduced to a single nonlinear partial differential equation describing the film height, coupled to the electrostatic problem via suitable numerical solution or via an asymptotic formula for electrostatic forcing. Comparison against numerical simulations of the full problem shows that the reduced models successfully capture key features of the film dynamics in appropriate regimes; all three approaches are shown to reproduce experimental results.

In this work, we report the first experimental observation of electrically driven Moffatt vortices between conical surfaces. The flow field is captured using a synchronized multi-camera particle image velocimetry experiment. The results reveal a flow bifurcation resembling Moffatt vortices in canola oil with −12 kV applied to an axisymmetric point-to-plane electrode set-up. The formation of such vortices was predicted theoretically; however, to the best of our knowledge, experimental observations were not reported earlier. The experimental results of the present work are shown to be in agreement with the available theoretical predictions. In addition, the observed vortices are slightly transient, suggesting the next bifurcation reminiscent of the Taylor vortices in the Taylor–Couette flow.

The pure and Er3+-modified binary Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3–9PbTiO3 (PZN–9PT) single crystals were grown by using the flux method. The phase structure of the as-grown single crystals at room temperature was confirmed by the x-ray diffraction analysis. The effect of Er3+ addition on the electrical properties and upconversion luminescence of PZN–9PT was investigated. The rhombohedral to tetragonal phase transition temperature and the Curie temperature of the Er3+-modified PZN–9PT single crystals were 370 and 451 K, respectively. The coercive field E C at room temperature was evidently higher by 11.6 kV/cm than that of the PZN–9PT single crystals (E C, ∼3.5 kV/cm). Furthermore, the green and red upconversion emission bands were obtained under the 980 nm excitation, which are related to (2H11/2, 4S3/2) → 4I15/2 and 4F9/2 → 4I15/2 transitions.

Dielectric capacitors have been the major enabler for many applications in advanced electronic and electrical power systems because of their capability for ultrafast charging/discharging and ultrahigh power density. The low energy densities of polymer dielectrics used in these capacitors have not been able to meet the ever-increasing demands for compact, reliable, and efficient electrical power systems. Polymer nanocomposites, in which high-dielectric-constant (k) nanofillers are incorporated in the polymer matrix, have been actively pursued. In this article, we begin with two theoretical considerations for concomitantly increasing the dielectric permittivity and breakdown strength of nanocomposites: critical interfacial polarization and local electric-field distribution. In the framework of these considerations, we review recent progress toward polymer nanocomposites with high energy densities based on two approaches: core–shell-structured polymer nanocomposites and dielectric anisotropy. In addition, the potential for the enhanced elastic properties of nanocomposites to improve the dielectric strengths of capacitor films is also discussed.

We investigate the linear stability threshold of a dielectric liquid subjected to unipolar injection in a two-dimensional rectangular enclosure with rigid boundaries. A finite element formulation transforms the set of linear partial differential equations that governs the system into a set of algebraic equations. The resulting system poses an eigenvalue problem. We calculate the linear stability threshold, as well as the velocity field and charge density distribution, as a function of the aspect ratio of the domain. The stability parameter as a function of the aspect ratio describes paths of symmetry-breaking bifurcation. The symmetry properties of the different linear modes determine whether these paths cross each other or not. The resulting structure has important consequences in the nonlinear behaviour of the system after the bifurcation points.

A theoretical model for electrons in the conduction band intend to investigate the optical breakdown threshold in femtosecond laser pulse-fused silica interaction is presented. The model is derived from a rate equation that includes the avalanche and multi-photon ionization processes of Thornber and Keldysh, respectively, and also the three-body and exciton recombination mechanisms. In addition, the time evolution of electron mean energy is also considered through the energy balance equation. The mean energy acts as a trigger for the avalanche mechanism. The evolution of electron density profiles is calculated and discussed with respect to the ionization and recombination mechanisms. The results for the fluence threshold as a function of the pulse duration fall in good agreement with the experimental data reported in the literature.

The fundamental mechanisms responsible for the creation of electrohydrodynamically driven roll structures in free electroconvection between two plates are analysed with reference to traditional Rayleigh–Bénard convection (RBC). Previously available knowledge limited to two dimensions is extended to three-dimensions, and a wide range of electric Reynolds numbers is analysed, extending into a fully inherently three-dimensional turbulent regime. Results reveal that structures appearing in three-dimensional electrohydrodynamics (EHD) are similar to those observed for RBC, and while two-dimensional EHD results bear some similarities with the three-dimensional results there are distinct differences. Analysis of two-point correlations and integral length scales show that full three-dimensional electroconvection is more chaotic than in two dimensions and this is also noted by qualitatively observing the roll structures that arise for both low () and high electric Reynolds numbers (up to ). Furthermore, calculations of mean profiles and second-order moments along with energy budgets and spectra have examined the validity of neglecting the fluctuating electric field in the Reynolds-averaged EHD equations and provide insight into the generation and transport mechanisms of turbulent EHD. Spectral and spatial data clearly indicate how fluctuating energy is transferred from electrical to hydrodynamic forms, on moving through the domain away from the charging electrode. It is shown that is not negligible close to the walls and terms acting as sources and sinks in the turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent scalar flux and turbulent scalar variance equations are examined. Profiles of hydrodynamic terms in the budgets resemble those in the literature for RBC; however there are terms specific to EHD that are significant, indicating that the transfer of energy in EHD is also attributed to further electrodynamic terms and a strong coupling exists between the charge flux and variance, due to the ionic drift term.

“We will not be intimidated!” is one of the mottos Arthur R. von Hippel lived by. From refusing to salute Hitler to starting a unique interdisciplinary university laboratory–the Laboratory for Insulation Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology–von Hippel followed his principles, laying the foundations for modern materials research and distinguishing himself as a pioneering scientist, an inspirational mentor, and a devoted family man. This article shows the personal and professional contexts within which von Hippel–the namesake of the Materials Research Society's highest award–emerged as a scientific leader and role model of interdisciplinarity, as seen through the eyes of his son, Frank N. von Hippel, physicist, professor of public and international affairs, and co-director of the Program on Science & Global Security at Princeton University.

A framework is presented for understanding charging processes in low vacuum scanning electron microscopy. We consider the effects of electric fields generated above and below the specimen surface and their effects on various processes taking place in the system. These processes include the formation of an ionic space charge, field-enhanced electron emission, charge trapping and dissipation, and electron–ion recombination. The physical mechanisms behind each of these processes are discussed, as are the microscope operating conditions under which each process is most effective. Readily observable effects on gas gain curves, secondary electron images, and X-ray spectra are discussed.

An overview of key materials for optical communications, including semiconductors, dielectrics, glasses, and organics, is presented in this issue of MRS Bulletin. Materials quality is in all cases crucial for advanced device and system performance. Materials properties and important problems are reviewed, and their impact on the performance of state-of-the-art optical devices is assessed and demonstrated by means of selected examples.