The expansion of transportation and service corridors has numerous, well-documented adverse effects on wildlife. However, little research on this topic has been translated into mitigating the effects of habitat fragmentation caused by road development on primates. The establishment of canopy bridges has proven to be an effective conservation intervention. Of the completed primate canopy bridge projects reported in the literature, to our knowledge, all attempt to mitigate the impacts caused by singular, linear infrastructure routes. Here we provide recommendations for the establishment of a network of natural and artificial canopy bridges over roads throughout Langkawi Island, Malaysia, to reduce rates of roadkill and support the movement of primates and other arboreal animals across the island by identifying suitable sites and appropriate tree species to be planted (including Ficus racemosa and Ficus fistulosa), bridge materials and post-installation monitoring. The establishment of this pioneering trans-island canopy bridge network could function as a model to enhance connectivity for arboreal animals in other important wildlife habitat sites in Malaysia and beyond that are affected by fragmentation from linear infrastructure. We have begun discussions with relevant authorities, partners and other pertinent parties, focusing on the initiation of construction of the canopy bridge network in 2024.

Nucleation, leading to the formation of tropical forest patches in open areas, has occurred in many parts of the world. This study examined the role of Ficus natalensis as a nucleus and estimated seed dispersers in the nucleation process. Seed rain and post-dispersal fate of Syzygium guineense ssp. afromontanum (a common forest tree species) under eight F. natalensis crowns were compared with those in other woodland microsites. In addition, focal observations of frugivore were conducted at F. natalensis in the woodlands and S. guineense ssp. afromontanum in the forest, when both species were fruiting. Most dispersed seeds (85%) were found under F. natalensis, and the number of dispersed seeds was significantly greater under F. natalensis than at other microsites. Germination (n = 600) and survival percentages (n = 384) were greater under F. natalensis compared with those in treeless open microsites. These results suggest that F. natalensis act as efficient nuclei in nucleation process. Results of focal observations at S. guineense ssp. afromontanum (100 h) showed that Schalow's turaco consumed 63% of fruit and swallowed all pecked fruit. Schalow's turaco also visited fruiting F. natalensis frequently (0.4 h−1) during 80 h of observations, indicating that Schalow's turaco is an important seed disperser during nucleation.

The keystone plant resources (KPR) concept describes certain plant species in tropical forests as vital to community stability and diversity because they provide food resources to vertebrate consumers during the season of scarcity. Here, we use an 8-y, continuous record of fruit fall from a 1.44-ha mature forest stand to identify potential KPRs in a lowland western Amazonian rain forest. KPRs were identified based on four criteria: temporal non-redundancy; year-to-year reliability; abundance of reproductive-size individuals and inferred fruit crop size; and the variety of vertebrate consumers utilizing their fruit. Overall, seven species were considered excellent KPRs: two of these belong to the genus Ficus, confirming that this taxon is a KPR as previously suggested. Celtis iguanaea (Cannabaceae) – a canopy liana – has also been previously classified as a KPR; in addition, Pseudomalmea diclina (Annonaceae), Cissus ulmifolia (Vitaceae), Allophylus glabratus (Sapindaceae) and Trichilia elegans (Meliaceae) are newly identified KPRs. Our results confirm that a very small fraction (<5%) of the plant community consistently provides fruit for a broad set of consumers during the period of resource scarcity, which has significant implications for the conservation and management of Amazonian forests.

Introduction. Edible wild plants are nature’s gift to mankind. Considering the growing need to identify alternative bio-nutritional sources, some underutilized species of figs (Ficus carica L., F. palmata Forssk., F. racemosa L.) and mulberries (Morus alba L. , M. nigra L, M. laevigata Wall.) of the family Moraceae were evaluated as wild edible fruits to study their nutritive and mineral composition in order to prioritize their edibility for indigenous people. Materials and methods. The major proximal components (moisture, ash, lipids, proteins, fibers and carbohydrates) were determined by standard AOAC methods. The concentration of various minerals (K, Ca, Mg and Na) and trace elements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Ni) were recorded by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Results. Our results indicated a range of moisture contents from 17.82–80.37 g·100 g–1 (fresh weight basis) in F. carica-M. laviegata; protein, 6.31–13.50 g·100 g–1 (dry weight basis) in F. glomerata-M. alba; crude fats, 1.02–2.71 g·100 g–1 in F. palmate-F. glomerata; carbohydrates 69.47–75.58 g·100 g–1 in M. alba-M. nigra; and fiber 7.63–17.81 g×100 g–1 in M. laviegata-F. palmate, respectively. The significantly highest energy value was computed in M. laviegata (367.7 kcal·100 g–1). Moreover, sufficient quantities of essential elements were found in all the studied materials. The highest levels of N [(0.24 ± 0.07) mg·g–1] and Fe [(1.43 ± 0.42 mg·g–1] were found in M. laviegata; Na [(1.92 ± 0.11 mg·g–1] and Mg [(6.92 ± 0.37 mg·g–1] in F. palmate; and K [(17.21 ± 0.03 mg·g–1] in F. glomerata. Significant variation existed among the selected species in all the nutritional parameters. Conclusion. According to our results, fig and mulberry fruits are recommended for commercial-scale production for the green industry to overcome food crises as they are potential food sources, particularly Morus laviegata and Ficus palmata, with rich nutritional attributes and mineral profiles.

Fig trees (Ficus spp) produce fruit year-round and figs are consumed by a large proportion of frugivores throughout the tropics. Figs are potential keystone resources that sustain frugivore communities during periods of scarcity, but studies have produced contradictory results. Over 1 y we monitored the phenology of 206 trees of five Ficus species in a Colombian cloud forest, to test whether figs produced fruit during periods of low overall fruit availability. We also measured fig tree densities in 18 0.5-ha plots and made 190 h of observations at 24 trees of three species to determine whether figs were abundant and consumed by a large proportion of the local frugivores. The five species produced fruit year-round but fig availability varied monthly by orders of magnitude. Fig trees reached comparatively high densities of 1–5 trees ha−1 and were consumed by 36 bird species (60% of the local frugivore assemblage) and three mammal species. However, there was no season of fruit scarcity and figs represented on average 1.5% of the monthly fruit biomass. Figs in this Andean forest are part of a broad array of fruiting species and at least during our study did not seem to constitute a keystone resource.

Photosynthetic responses of 12 species including six fern species (Neottopteris nidus, Microsorum punctatum, Pseudodrynaria coronans, Asplenium finlaysonianum, Paraleptochilus decurrens and Tectaria fauriei) and seedlings of six fig species (Ficus curtipes, F. gibbosa, F. altissima, F. auriculata, F. oligodon and F. hookeriana) in different life forms to lightfleck were investigated, to test whether epiphytes and hemiepiphytes display a slower response to lightfleck and fast induction loss after a lightfleck compared with their terrestrial counterparts, and whether ferns display a slower response to lightfleck and slower induction loss compared to figs. The measurements of functional traits and physiological parameters were determined in a screenhouse of 4% full sunlight. Epiphytic ferns and hemiepiphytic figs had thicker leaves compared with their terrestrial counterparts. Compared with figs, ferns had thicker fronds, larger stomata with a low density, and lower stomatal conductance and photosynthetic capacity; ferns had lower light compensation point and dark respiration rate, conferring a positive carbon gain under low diffuse light beneath the canopy. The induction time to reach 90% maximum net photosynthetic rate (T90) upon the exposure to a saturated light varied strongly among life forms. Epiphytic ferns had slower T90 than terrestrial ferns (19.9–26.3 vs 5.9–16.3 min, respectively), and hemiepiphytic figs had slower T90 than terrestrial figs (13.1–20.4 vs 5.2–7.8 min, respectively). Compared with figs, ferns showed a slower response to lightfleck. Across ferns and figs, the induction time was negatively correlated with initial stomatal conductance. No significant difference in induction loss was found between two life forms within ferns or figs, whereas ferns had a significantly slower induction loss compared with figs. These results showed that the inherent conservative water use strategy of the epiphytes and hemiepiphytes constrain their lightfleck utilization.

Sixty bird species ate the figs of 29 Ficus taxa at a lowland forest site in Peninsular Malaysia. Although most bird-eaten figs were brightly coloured, four Ficus species produced dull-coloured ripe fruits. Whilst there was tremendous overlap in the sizes of figs eaten by different bird species, data presented show that the fig resource was partitioned by birds. Large birds were commoner visitors to large-fruited Ficus, but small birds tended to eat small figs. Within two avian genera, the Treron pigeons and Megalaima barbets, there was distinct partitioning of figs consumed according to fig size.

The growth habits of five species of hemiepiphytic fig trees (Ficus subgenus Urostigma) were compared to see if any species occupied distinct canopy positions or showed unique host preferences in lowland rain forest in Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesian Borneo. Highly significant differences among species were found in the height of establishment on hosts, the level at which fig crowns were deployed, and the size and taxa of host trees. Ficus stupenda, F. dubia, and F. subtecta all had mean establishment heights between 29 and 31m above the ground, had their crowns in the upper canopy, and predominantly occupied large trees in the Dipterocarpaceae. F. consociata and F. xylophylla established at significantly lower mean heights of 24 and 18 m respectively, had their crowns predominantly in lower canopy layers, and disproportionately occupied smaller non-dipterocarp trees. These patterns were consistent both within lowland forest on alluvial terraces, which was most intensively sampled, and when data were combined from three other contiguous lowland forest habitats. Ficus species appear to be specialized to some extent for distinct microhabitats within the canopy.

Diurnal and nocturnal censuses were conducted on animal visitors at a single strangler Ficus aff. cotinifolia (H.B.K.) tree during the entire period of ripe fruit availability. Fruit fall to the ground was measured with fruit traps, and chemical analyses were conducted on the figs. Fourteen species of birds, four species of nonvolant mammals and two species of bats consumed the figs. Of the total number of ripe figs accounted for during the sampling period (N= 1.9 X 105), 42% fell to the ground, 45% were removed by mammals and 13% by birds. Frugivores such as the howling monkey Alouatta palliata, the cacomistle Bassariscus sumichrasti, the keel-billed toucan Ramphastos sulphuratus and fruit-eating bats removed the largest amounts of figs from the tree and deposited seeds of 13 plant species other than figs below the tree crown.

To understand how fruit tree characteristics and microhabitats shape the assemblage of birds on fig trees and the pattern of fig–bird interactions, we observed and recorded, over 96 d and 816 h, the frugivorous birds visiting 32 individual trees belonging to 14 species of Ficus that were distributed across four different sites. A total of 30 bird species were recorded as eating figs, comprising 66.7% of the total number of frugivorous bird species recorded at the four sites. Small passerine birds such as bulbuls were the dominant frugivores for fig species. The number of bird species visiting different fig trees was significantly influenced by the crop size and canopy volume. Fruit colour and fruit size did not significantly influence the number of bird species, whereas habitats appeared to influence the composition of visiting birds. The fig–frugivorous bird interaction was asymmetrically structured, and the degree of nestedness appeared to be influenced by the forest type and degree of disturbance: the degree of nestedness in non-limestone forest tended to be higher than limestone forest; forest with less disturbance tend to be more nested compared with the open forest with high disturbance.

Interactions between sympatric species are of particular interest for understanding the mechanisms that allow animal coexistence in the ecological community. The mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata Gray) and the white-nosed coati (Nasua narica Linnaeus) are similar-sized mammals with a sympatric distribution in the Neotropics (Nowak 1999). Since these two species are partly frugivorous (howler, Crockett & Eisenberg 1987; coati, Gompper 1997), and fruit is often limited (Laurance et al. 2003), howlers and coatis might be observed foraging from the same fruiting tree, but there is no information regarding this possibility. We studied the feeding encounters between these two species in a small forest fragment, and discuss the conditions under which these episodes occur.

Fig pollinators (Agaonidae, Chalcioidea) lay their eggs in fig inflorescences (Ficus, Moraceae). Reproductive success for both partners is thus largely dependent on the dispersal of these tiny wasps. Some are known to cover substantial distances (> 10 km) using wind above the canopy. However, fig ecology is extremely varied, and hence one might also expect a diversity of pollinator dispersal strategies. We studied fig pollinator dispersal in Sarawak (2001 and 2004) and Peninsular Malaysia (2003). The results indicate substantial differences in dispersal ecology between the pollinators of monoecious and dioecious figs. Monoecious-fig pollinators were common, and species composition and rank abundances were similar between years despite short sampling periods. Substantial temporal and spatial variation in their production is thus smoothed out by long-distance dispersal. Some species whose hosts do not occur at our Sarawak site and are rare throughout Borneo were caught, suggesting exceptionally long-distance dispersal in these species. Conversely, few dioecious-fig pollinators were caught and species overlap between years was low. Dispersal range in many dioecious-fig pollinators may be more restricted. At a finer scale, among genera pollinating monoecious figs we found marked differences in flight behaviour (height and time-of-dispersal). We relate these findings to the ecology of their hosts, and discuss the implications for fig–fig-pollinator coevolution.

Hemi-epiphytic figs (Moraceae; Ficus subgenus Urostigma) are a distinctive component of the canopy of tropical rain forests. The hemi-epiphytic habit has risen independently several times, and is recorded in over 20 plant families today, but with approximately 350 species globally figs are by far the most important (Berg & Corner 2005, Putz & Holbrook 1986). They are ubiquitously diverse in tropical lowland rain forests and are represented by independent radiations in each region (Harrison 2005, Jousselin et al. 2003). Moreover, their abundant production of fruit at all times of the year makes them functionally important as food for wildlife, especially during periods of general fruit shortage (Shanahan et al. 2001a). However, hemi-epiphytic fig populations occur at very low densities and this, combined with the difficulties of access to the canopy, has meant that study of their biology lags behind that of other rain forest plants (Harrison et al. 2003). Here, I present the first estimates of mortality and recruitment for any community of hemi-epiphytic figs.

Intraspecific synchrony in the phenology of tropical forest trees has implications for satiation of browsers and seed predators, pollination, dispersal and interpreting plant responses to environmental cues and stresses. Community phenological studies have been constrained in their consideration of these issues by the lack of concise quantitative measures of intraspecific synchrony. We propose a novel application of Colwell's predictability indices to overcome this deficiency. Its application is demonstrated by evaluating the leaf and reproductive phenologies of 8–16 individuals of each of 20 monsoon forest tree species from northern Australia monthly for 30 mo. The indices yielded substantial additional information over that provided by summaries averaged amongst conspecifics. Marked intraspecific asynchronies in leaf flush or flowering occurred in five evergreen species and two deciduous fig species, and were associated with prolonged individual commitments to these states. Five partly deciduous species exhibited marked intraspecific variation in the seasonal extent of leaf loss. We interpret the observed variation in intraspecific synchrony in terms of contrasting water-use and pollination strategies. The synchronicity indices are concise and robust to small and variable sample sizes, and may thus enhance studies of species-rich assemblages.

The various mutualistic and antagonistic symbioses between fig trees (Ficus: Moraceae) and chalcid wasps comprise a community in microcosm. Phylogenetic estimates of figs and fig wasps show general topological correspondence, making the microcosm a model system for cophylogeny. Incongruence between phylogenies from associated organisms can be reconciled through a combination of evolutionary events. Cophylogeny mapping reconciles phylogenies by embedding an associate tree into a host tree, finding the optimal combinations of events capable of explaining incongruence and evaluating the level of codivergence. This review addresses the results of cophylogeny analysis concerning Ficus and discusses the plausibility of different evolutionary events. Five different associations encompassing fig-pollinator, fig-parasite and pollinator-parasitoid interactions are reconciled. The method improves on previous comparisons by employing ‘jungles’ to provide an exhaustive and quantitative analysis of cophylogeny. A jungle is a mechanism for inferring host switches and obtaining all potentially optimal solutions to the reconciliation problem. The results support the consensus that figs codiverge significantly with pollinators but not non-pollinators. However, pollinators still appear to have switched between hosts in contradiction to the traditional model of faithful codivergence. This emphasises the growing realisation that evolutionary transitions in the microcosm are more flexible than previously thought and host specificity is necessary but not sufficient for codivergence. The importance of sampling strategy is emphasised by the influence of taxon set on the fig-pollinator and fig-parasite jungles. Spurious significant results for fig-parasite and fig-parasitoid jungles indicate that the choice of congruence measure influences significance; the total number of events required to reconcile two trees (‘total cost’) is not a good measure of congruence when switches cannot be realistically weighted.

We studied changes in germination rates and dispersal distance of seeds of Ficus perforata and F. lundelli dispersed by howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana), in a small (40 ha) ‘disturbed’ and a larger (>600 ha) ‘preserved’ tropical rainforest in southern Veracruz, Mexico. The interaction between A. p. mexicana and Ficus (Urostigma) spp. is beneficial for the interacting species and has important implications for their conservation. Howler monkeys gain from the ingestion of an important food source, germination rates of Ficus seeds are improved by passage through the monkeys' digestive tract, and the seeds are more likely to be deposited in a site suitable for germination and development. Seed dispersal distances are relatively larger in the preserved site, with both the size of the forest area and the spatial pattern of Ficus affecting the dispersal process. In a large forest fragment with ‘regularly’ distributed Ficus individuals the howler monkeys move away from the seed source, increasing the probability that the seeds are desposited on a tree other than Ficus, which is important for the germination and future development of a hemiepiphytic species. In a small forest fragment with trees distributed in clumps howlers repeatedly use the same individual trees, and faeces containing seeds may be dropped on unsuitable trees more often. These are key issues when addressing conservation policies for fragmented forests.

The consumption of figs (the fruit of Ficus spp.; Moraceae) by vertebrates is reviewed using data from the literature, unpublished accounts and new field data from Borneo and Hong Kong. Records of frugivory from over 75 countries are presented for 260 Ficus species (approximately 30% of described species). Explanations are presented for geographical and taxonomic gaps in the otherwise extensive literature. In addition to a small number of reptiles and fishes, 1274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. In terms of the number of species and genera of fig-eaters and the number of fig species eaten we identify the avian families interacting most with Ficus to be Columbidae, Psittacidae, Pycnonotidae, Bucerotidae, Sturnidae and Lybiidae. Among mammals, the major fig-eating families are Pteropodidae, Cercopithecidae, Sciuridae, Phyllostomidae and Cebidae. We assess the role these and other frugivores play in Ficus seed dispersal and identify fig-specialists. In most, but not all, cases fig specialists provide effective seed dispersal services to the Ficus species on which they feed. The diversity of fig-eaters is explained with respect to fig design and nutrient content, phenology of fig ripening and the diversity of fig presentation. Whilst at a gross level there exists considerable overlap between birds, arboreal mammals and fruit bats with regard to the fig species they consume, closer analysis, based on evidence from across the tropics, suggests that discrete guilds of Ficus species differentially attract subsets of sympatric frugivore communities. This dispersal guild structure is determined by interspecific differences in fig design and presentation. Throughout our examination of the fig-frugivore interaction we consider phylogenetic factors and make comparisons between large-scale biogeographical regions. Our dataset supports previous claims that Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. We explore the concept of figs as keystone resources and suggest criteria for future investigations of their dietary importance. Finally, fully referenced lists of frugivores recorded at each Ficus species and of Ficus species in the diet of each frugivore are presented as online appendices. In situations where ecological information is incomplete or its retrieval is impractical, this valuable resource will assist conservationists in evaluating the role of figs or their frugivores in tropical forest sites.