Population exposure to food and nutrients can be estimated from household food purchases, but store surveys of foods and their composition are more available, less costly and might provide similar information. Our aim was to compare estimates of nutrient exposure from a store survey of packaged food with those from household panel food purchases. A cross-sectional store survey of all packaged foods for sale in two major supermarkets was undertaken in Auckland, New Zealand, between February and May 2012. Longitudinal household food purchase data (November 2011 to October 2012) were obtained from the nationally representative, population-weighted New Zealand Nielsen HomeScan® panel. Data on 8440 packaged food and non-alcoholic beverage products were collected in the store survey. Food purchase data were available for 1229 households and 16 812 products. Store survey data alone produced higher estimates of exposure to Na and sugar compared with estimates from household panel food purchases. The estimated mean difference in exposure to Na was 94 (95 % CI 72, 115) mg/100 g (20 % relative difference; P<0·01), to sugar 1·6 (95 % CI 0·8, 2·5) g/100 g (11 %; P<0·01), to SFA −0·3 (95 % CI −0·8, 0·3) g/100 g (6 %; P=0·3) and to energy −18 (−71, 35) kJ/100 g (2 %; P=0·51). Compared with household panel food purchases, store survey data provided a reasonable estimate of average population exposure to key nutrients from packaged foods. However, caution should be exercised in using such data to estimate population exposure to Na and sugar and in generalising these findings to other countries, as well as over time.

Choline is an important nutrient for humans. Choline intake of the European population was assessed considering the European Food Safety Authority European Comprehensive Food Consumption Database and the United States Department of Agriculture Nutrient Database. Average choline intake ranges were 151–210 mg/d among toddlers (1 to ≤3 years old), 177–304 mg/d among other children (3 to ≤10 years old), 244–373 mg/d among adolescents (10 to ≤18 years old), 291–468 mg/d among adults (18 to ≤65 years old), 284–450 mg/d among elderly people (65 to ≤75 years old) and 269–444 mg/d among very elderly people (≥75 years old). The intakes were higher among males compared with females, mainly due to larger quantities of food consumed per day. In most of the population groups considered, the average choline intake was below the adequate intake (AI) set by the Institute of Medicine in the USA. The main food groups contributing to choline intake were meat, milk, grain, egg and their derived products, composite dishes and fish. The main limitations of this study are related to the absence of choline composition data of foods consumed by the European population and the subsequent assumption made to assess their intake levels. Given the definition of AI, no conclusion on the adequacy of choline intake can be drawn for most European population groups. Such results improve the knowledge on choline intake in Europe that could be further refined by the collection of choline composition data for foods as consumed in Europe.

Nutrient profiling systems are powerful tools for public health initiatives, as they aim at categorising foods according to their nutritional quality. The British Food Standards Agency (FSA) nutrient profiling system (FSA score) has been validated in a British food database, but the application of the model in other contexts has not yet been evaluated. The objective of the present study was to assess the application of the British FSA score in a French food composition database. Foods from the French NutriNet-Santé study food composition table were categorised according to their FSA score using the Office of Communication (OfCom) cut-off value (‘healthier’ ≤ 4 for foods and ≤ 1 for beverages; ‘less healthy’ >4 for foods and >1 for beverages) and distribution cut-offs (quintiles for foods, quartiles for beverages). Foods were also categorised according to the food groups used for the French Programme National Nutrition Santé (PNNS) recommendations. Foods were weighted according to their relative consumption in a sample drawn from the NutriNet-Santé study (n 4225), representative of the French population. Classification of foods according to the OfCom cut-offs was consistent with food groups described in the PNNS: 97·8 % of fruit and vegetables, 90·4 % of cereals and potatoes and only 3·8 % of sugary snacks were considered as ‘healthier’. Moreover, variability in the FSA score allowed for a discrimination between subcategories in the same food group, confirming the possibility of using the FSA score as a multiple category system, for example as a basis for front-of-pack nutrition labelling. Application of the FSA score in the French context would adequately complement current public health recommendations.

Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) are bioactive food components that constitute about 2 % of fatty acids in cows' milk fat. There are few systematic data available on the BCFA content of other foods to estimate dietary intakes. In the present study, we report BCFA distribution and content of fresh and processed foods representing the major foods in the American diet and estimate BCFA intake. BCFA are primarily components of dairy and ruminant food products, and are absent from chicken, pork and salmon. The mean BCFA intake of 500 mg/d was delivered primarily from dairy and beef food products; by comparison, average intake of the widely studied long-chain PUFA EPA and DHA has been estimated to be 100 mg/d. Common adjustments in the diet could double the daily intake of BCFA. The fermented foods sauerkraut and miso had appreciable fractions of BCFA, but, overall, they are low-fat foods providing very small amounts of BCFA in the diet, and other fermented foods did not contain BCFA as might have been expected from the influence of microbial exposure. These data support the quantitative importance of BCFA delivered primarily from dairy and beef food products and highlight the need for research into their effects on health.

The aims of this review paper are to provide an overview of the association of sodium intake with cardiovascular health, to identify sodium in our global food supply and to describe problems associated with assessment of dietary sodium intake. Excess sodium intake may contribute to the development of hypertension in some individuals, consequently increasing CVD risk. The average intake of sodium in populations around the world far exceeds the actual body's needs. Processed and restaurant foods contribute the most dietary sodium for Americans and other populations worldwide. There is a worldwide focus on reducing sodium content of food products in an effort to reduce health related issues associated with excessive salt and sodium intake in individuals. In several countries, regulations have been introduced to lower the sodium content of foods. Manufacturers are complying with these regulations by formulating new products to meet these standards. However, the variability in food sodium content poses challenges to researchers to accurately assess dietary sodium intakes of individuals. There are differences in sodium content of foods in databases compared with nutritional information provided by manufacturers for the same food products. Variations also exist in restaurant foods, where values differ from those available on restaurant websites. Sodium may be either underestimated or overestimated; it is not always on target. Awareness of the variability among food products is crucial but capturing sodium content of every food in the market is not feasible. Whenever possible, updating databases is critical. In conclusion, it is not feasible to capture the sodium content of every food in the marketplace but being aware of these differences is essential to assessing actual sodium consumption. Since biological determinations are burdensome and impractical, it is imperative for researchers and other health professionals to participate in the development and implementation of tools to accurately assess sodium intake in individuals.

In the UK contemporary estimates of dietary Fe intakes rely upon food Fe content data from the 1980s or before. Moreover, there has been speculation that the natural Fe content of foods has fallen over time, predominantly due to changes in agricultural practices. Therefore, we re-analysed common plant-based foods of the UK diet for their Fe content (the ‘2000s analyses’) and compared the values with the most recent published values (the ‘1980s analyses’) and the much older published values (the ‘1930s analyses’), the latter two being from different editions of the McCance and Widdowson food tables. Overall, there was remarkable consistency between analytical data for foods spanning the 70 years. There was a marginal, but significant, apparent decrease in natural food Fe content from the 1930s to 1980s/2000s. Whether this represents a true difference or is analytical error between the eras is unclear and how it could translate into differences in intake requires clarification. However, fortificant Fe levels (and fortificant Fe intake based upon linked national data) did appear to have increased between the 1980s and 2000s, and deserve further attention in light of recent potential concerns over the long-term safety and effectiveness of fortificant Fe. In conclusion, the overall Fe content of plant-based foods is largely consistent between the 1930s and 2000s, with a fall in natural dietary Fe content negated or even surpassed by a rise in fortificant Fe but for which the long-term effects are uncertain.

A model was used to investigate two mechanisms describing reductions in food intake (anorexia) observed during gastrointestinal parasitism in lambs, and to explore relationships between anorexia and food composition. The mechanisms were either a reduction in intrinsic growth rate, leading to a consequent reduction in food intake (mechanism 1; M1), or a direct reduction in food intake (mechanism 2; M2). For both mechanisms, lambs growing from 2 to 6 months of age were modelled, with one of three levels of trickle challenge with Teladorsagia circumcincta. Scenarios were simulated for feeds varying in either protein or energy content, or both. Major differences were found between the predictions resulting from M1 and M2 on low-energy foods that constrained the intake of uninfected lambs through bulk. With M1, food intake was governed by the first operating constraint, whereas with M2 an additivity of constraints was observed. On the other foods, the duration of anorexia increased with increasing energy content of feed for M1, whilst the duration of anorexia decreased with increasing protein content of feed for M2.For foods that did not have an impact upon lambs' gastrointestinal tract capacity, published data were consistent with predictions of M2. Due to an absence of experimental data, no conclusions could be drawn for relationships between anorexia and food composition in the presence of other limiting constraints, such as bulk for low-energy foods. In conclusion, available experimental data and model predictions were consistent with anorexia having an impact directly on food intake, and with impacts of anorexia increasing with decreasing protein content.

Si may play an important role in bone formation and connective tissue metabolism. Although biological interest in this element has recently increased, limited literature exists on the Si content of foods. To further our knowledge and understanding of the relationship between dietary Si and human health, a reliable food composition database, relevant for the UK population, is required. A total of 207 foods and beverages, commonly consumed in the UK, were analysed for Si content. Composite samples were analysed using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry following microwave-assisted digestion with nitric acid and H2O2. The highest concentrations of Si were found in cereals and cereal products, especially less refined cereals and oat-based products. Fruit and vegetables were highly variable sources of Si with substantial amounts present in Kenyan beans, French beans, runner beans, spinach, dried fruit, bananas and red lentils, but undetectable amounts in tomatoes, oranges and onions. Of the beverages, beer, a macerated whole-grain cereal product, contained the greatest level of Si, whilst drinking water was a variable source with some mineral waters relatively high in Si. The present study provides a provisional database for the Si content of UK foods, which will allow the estimation of dietary intakes of Si in the UK population and investigation into the role of dietary Si in human health.

Enterolignans (enterodiol and enterolactone) can potentially reduce the risk of certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Enterolignans are formed by the intestinal microflora after the consumption of plant lignans. Until recently, only secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol were considered enterolignan precursors, but now several new precursors have been identified, of which lariciresinol and pinoresinol have a high degree of conversion. Quantitative data on the contents in foods of these new enterolignan precursors are not available. Thus, the aim of this study was to compile a lignan database including all four major enterolignan precursors. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol in eighty-three solid foods and twenty-six beverages commonly consumed in The Netherlands. The richest source of lignans was flaxseed (301 129 μg/100 g), which contained mainly secoisolariciresinol. Also, lignan concentrations in sesame seeds (29 331 μg/100 g, mainly pinoresinol and lariciresinol) were relatively high. For grain products, which are known to be important sources of lignan, lignan concentrations ranged from 7 to 764 μg/100 g. However, many vegetables and fruits had similar concentrations, because of the contribution of lariciresinol and pinoresinol. Brassica vegetables contained unexpectedly high levels of lignans (185–2321 μg/100 g), mainly pinoresinol and lariciresinol. Lignan levels in beverages varied from 0 (cola) to 91 μg/100 ml (red wine). Only four of the 109 foods did not contain a measurable amount of lignans, and in most cases the amount of lariciresinol and pinoresinol was larger than that of secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol. Thus, available databases largely underestimate the amount of enterolignan precursors in foods.

Information on phyto-oestrogen intake in various populations has been scanty until now, primarily because data on the content of these compounds in foods were lacking. We report here on expansion of the Finnish National Food Composition Database (Fineli®) with values for the plant lignans matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol and the isoflavones daidzein and genistein. The values, expressed as aglycones, were based on food analyses (mainly GC–MS) or imputed from analytical data for 180 foods for lignans and 160 foods for isoflavones; additionally, over 1000 values were derived from the recipe database of Fineli. Average intake of these phyto-oestrogens was calculated using food consumption data of the National Dietary Survey FINDIET 1997, which was carried out in a random sample of the adult population in five areas in Finland. The dietary data were collected by 24 h recall (n=2862). The mean lignan intake was 434 (standard deviation (SD) 1575) μg/d and the mean isoflavone intake was 788 (SD 673) μg/d. Women had a higher lignan density (μg lignans/MJ) in their diet than men (P<0·05). Men had a higher mean daily isoflavone intake, 902 (SD 368) μg, than women, 668 (SD 963) μg (P<0·05). The sources of lignans were many: seeds, cereals, fruit, berries and vegetables. The main sources of isoflavones appeared to be processed meat products/sausages containing soya as an ingredient, and legumes as such. The average intake of lignans and isoflavones in Finland seems to be low, but intake varies throughout the population.

Epidemiological evidence links high intake of ascorbic acid (AA) and other antioxidant micronutrients to health promotion. It would be useful to know the overall, or ‘total’ antioxidant capacity of foods, to establish the contribution of AA to this, and to assess how this information may translate into dietary intakes to meet the new US daily reference intake for AA. In this study, the total antioxidant capacity, as the ferric reducing–antioxidant power (FRAP) value, and AA content of thirty-four types of fruits and vegetables were measured using a modified version of the FRAP assay, known as FRASC. This measures AA (reduced form only) simultaneously with the FRAP value. Results covered a wide range: 880–15 940 μmol/kg fresh wet weight and <20–540 mg/kg fresh wet weight respectively, for FRAP and AA, which comprised <1–73 % and <1–59 % total antioxidant capacity of fruits and vegetables respectively. We estimate that 100 mg AA is contained in one orange, a few strawberries, one kiwi fruit, 1–2 slices of pineapple, several florets of raw cauliflower or a handful of uncooked spinach leaves. Apples, bananas, pears and plums, the most commonly consumed fruits in the UK, contain very little AA. Results indicate also that the antioxidant capacity of vegetables decreases rapidly and significantly after fragmentation. Results of this, and future studies, using FRASC as a biomonitoring tool will be useful in food production, preparation, preservation, and aid dietary choices to increase antioxidant and AA intake. Furthermore, FRASC will facilitate bioavailability studies of antioxidants from different foods of known antioxidant capacity and AA content.

This paper reports the compilation of a food composition database for phylloquinone (vitamin K1) derived from the direct analysis of foods, recipe calculation and the assignment of values based on food similarities. All the basic and other food items used in these calculations had been analysed by HPLC and about 170 of the items had been obtained and assayed in the UK. Recipe calculations took account of the cooking method and changes in water and fat content. Currently, approximately 1501 food items with Royal Society of Chemistry/Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food food codes have been allocated a vitamin K1 value, and a further 282 new recipe codes are included in the database. Representative values from each food group are reported together with an indication of the potential variation. Detailed examples of some recipe calculations are included, and also the impact of changing the type of fat in recipes. Vitamin K1 is associated with, and most abundant in, photosynthetic tissues of plants. Accordingly, the highest concentrations (3000–6000 μg/kg) are found in dark-green leafy vegetables and herbs, such as kale, parsley, spinach and green cabbage. Intermediate concentrations (1000–2000 μg/kg) are found in plants with paler leaves such as white cabbage and lettuce or in green, non-leafy vegetables such as broccoli and brussel sprouts. Fats and oils contain variable amounts of vitamin K1 with the highest concentrations (300–1300 μg/kg) in soyabean, rapeseed and olive oils and the margarines based on them. Other foods such as dairy products, meat dishes and cereal-based foods (bread, biscuits, cakes, desserts etc.), although not in themselves particularly rich in vitamin K1 (< 200 μg/kg), may contribute significantly to intakes when consumption of green vegetables is poor. Within the scope of this present study, it has not been possible to address issues such as inter-sample variability, losses during storage or the bioavailability from different foods and further work on these aspects is needed.