As adult cats can often be difficult to re-home, they may spend long periods in rescue shelters where barren housing and inconsistent handling can reduce their welfare. In this study, 165 adult cats in an animal shelter in Vancouver, Canada, were assigned to four treatments. The Basic Single treatment reflected typical conditions in that particular shelter, with cats handled in an inconsistent manner by various staff and housed singly in relatively barren cages. Three alternative treatments involved more consistent, positive handling by only the experimenter and research assistants, plus three housing conditions: Enriched Single (individual cages with opportunities to perch and hide), Basic Communal (group housing with opportunity for each cat to have personal space), and Enriched Communal (group housing enriched to encourage play and cat – cat interaction). The Basic Single treatment had the lowest percentage adopted in 21 days (45% versus 69-76% for other treatment, and higher stress scores than other treatments. The three alternative treatments did not differ significantly on any measure. Cats euthanised for poor health showed higher stress levels when alive than other cats. In a questionnaire, most adopters cited certain behavioural/emotional traits (‘friendly’, ‘playful’, ‘happy’) as reasons for selecting cats; these were generally associated with lower stress scores. The results suggest that consistent handling combined with a range of improved housing options can improve the chances of adoption for adult cats, perhaps by reducing fear-related behaviours that make cats less attractive to adopters.

Chronic stress occurs when animals are unable to deal with a persistent stressor with species-typical responses, or when several stressors are present concurrently. Chronic stress is most frequently considered in intensive systems, but it may also be a welfare concern for extensively managed species, such as the sheep. Here we review behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to experimentally induced chronic stressors to determine relevant indicators of chronic stress. Neuroendocrine responses to chronic stress are difficult to interpret because initial responses are followed by an apparent normalisation. Thus, cortisol or catecholamines may be at or below pre-stress levels during chronic stress, but this varies with different stressors. Chronic stress can also affect reproductive function, impair body and wool growth and meat quality, reduce immune function, and is associated with greater parasite burdens in sheep. Chronic stress induces alterations in behaviour patterns, particularly activity and feeding, and circadian rhythms of behaviour. Stereotypic behaviours, however, are infrequent in sheep and may occur only in experimental conditions of social isolation. Behavioural and physiological data suggest that rough handling and sheepdogs may be sources of chronic stress for sheep. Social subordination and weaning also act as chronic stressors, leading to higher parasitism in these animals and a greater response to additional stressors. Lameness and parasitism are associated with physiological and behavioural responses indicating that these are severe forms of chronic stress in sheep. It is unclear whether environmental stressors, such as weather and food availability, induce chronic stress in sheep. Under-nutrition may, however, be a welfare concern through its impact on lamb survival. The existence of many sources of chronic stress in the management of sheep suggests that the welfare of this species requires more attention than it has currently received.

The handling of cattle during unloading (n = 39) and movement to slaughter (n = 163) was observed at a commercial slaughterhouse. Most potentially traumatic events and handling events occurred while the cattle were in the race. During the initial 3 hours in the lairage pen, cattle from markets (n = 28) spent significantly more time drinking than those sent to slaughter direct from farms (n = 11; P < 0.05). Most cattle had bruises (99%; η = 181), but there was no difference between the occurrence of bruising in cattle direct from farms and those from markets. Bruise score was not affected by the distance transported from farms 18-201km (11-125 miles). However, cattle from markets > 64km (>40 miles) from the slaughterhouse had greater bruise scores than those from nearer markets 0.8-64km (0.5-40 miles) (P <0.01). No correlations were found between potentially traumatic events at the slaughterhouse and the occurrence of bruising. Plasma total protein concentration and plasma creatine kinase activity in blood collected at exsanguination (n = 170) was significantly greater in cattle from markets than in those from farms (P < 0.05), but there was no difference in plasma osmolality and packed cell volume (PCV). Cattle from distant markets > 129km (>80 miles) had higher PCV and plasma total protein concentration than those from markets within 129km (80 miles) (P <0.05). The overall results suggest that cattle from markets, particularly those transported for a distance greater than 64km (40 miles), would benefit from greater access to water at the market and from improved methods of handling and transport prior to arrival at the slaughterhouse.

Published information provides scientific evidence that traditional, involuntary restraint techniques of research non-human primates are intrinsically a source of distress resulting from fear. It has been documented that common methods of enforced restraint result in significantly increased adrenal activity as well as significant changes in a variety of other physiological parameters. There is no scientific evidence that the animals adequately habituate to involuntary restraint. Numerous reports have been published demonstrating that non-human primates can readily be trained to cooperate rather than resist during common handling procedures such as capture, venipuncture, injection and veterinary examination. Cooperative animals fail to show behavioural and physiological signs of distress. It was concluded that the advantages of training techniques over traditional restraint techniques will have to be explored more extensively in the future for the sake of research subjects and scientific methodology.

Farmed deer, of which the predominant species is the red deer (Cervus elaphus), are increasingly transported to abattoirs for slaughter rather than being shot at pasture. In order to satisfy meat hygiene and marketing requirements, the welfare of deer is often reduced because all farmed animals are stressed by commercial transportation. Several recent experimental studies (reviewed here) have found the magnitude of behavioural and physiological responses of deer to many aspects of handling and transport to be similar to those measured in other farm species, particularly ruminants. Thus, their welfare appears not to be unduly compromised despite their comparatively recent domestication. Deer are, however, particularly flighty and require specialized handling facilities and equipment, the key features of which are summarized.

Legislation covering transport of deer is already operative in many countries with the aim of safeguarding deer welfare. However, the responses of deer to commercial transportation have not yet been measured scientifically. This primary information is needed before a full assessment of the effects of transport on the welfare of deer can be made. Thermal conditions during transit are of importance for deer welfare and these have not been measured, either under experimental conditions or during commercial journeys.

The welfare of farmed animals can be greatly influenced by the availability of appropriately designed and tested handling systems. Farmers who start a new enterprise, such as deer farming, with a small herd may be reluctant to invest in a permanently located handling facility, and this may have an adverse effect on the welfare of the deer. The design, construction and use of a portable handling facility for farmed deer is described. The advantages to management and the benefits to the welfare of deer of being able to transport the handling system to where the deer are grazing are illustrated. The system enhances the ability to monitor the incidence of disease and injury in a deer herd and provides for proper therapeutic or prophylactic treatments to be given as required.

Two experiments were conducted to determine whether maximum eye temperature, measured using infrared thermography (IRT), could be a non-invasive technique for detecting responses of cattle to handling procedures. Experiment one used six crossbred heifers randomly assigned to two groups in a crossover design and subjected to i) being hit with a plastic tube on the rump and ii) being startled by the sudden waving of a plastic bag. Experiment two used 32 crossbred bulls randomly assigned to three treatments: i) control, restraint only; ii) electric prod, two brief applications of an electric prod or, iii) startled, as in experiment one, accompanied by shouting. Exit speed (m s−1) was recorded on release from the restraint. Maximum eye temperature was recorded continuously pre- and post-treatment. In experiment one, eye temperature dropped rapidly between 20 and 40 s following both treatments and returned to baseline between 60 and 80 s following hitting and between 100 and 120 s following startling. In experiment two, eye temperature dropped between 0 and 20 s, following both treatments, and returned to baseline by 180 s, following startling plus shouting, but did not return to baseline for five minutes following electric prod. Exit speed tended to be faster following the electric prod. In conclusion, IRT detected responses that were due possibly to fear and/or pain associated with the procedures and may therefore be a useful, non-invasive method for assessing aversiveness of handling practices to cattle.

Groups of end-of-lay (spent) hens were subjected to three different treatments on a short flat-belt conveyor. Observations of bird behaviour indicated that the incidences of wing flapping, loss of balance and alarm calling significantly increased when birds were conveyed up and down slopes in comparison to being conveyed horizontally (P<0.01). Birds were significantly more hesitant when approaching the incline compared to the horizontal (P<0.001). However, differences in behavioural responses were not reflected in times spent in tonic immobility or open-field tests. There were no significant differences for the three treatments. It is possible that human contact, before and after conveying, was a more significant fear stimulus than the treatment itself.

We report on the efficacy of body weight change as a measure of trapping and handling stress in two species of wild small mammal: bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). We tested two hypotheses: (1) that weight change after capture and handling is related to the intensity of the trapping and handling regime, and (2) that weight change after an intensive handling regime is related to an individual's current pattern of energy expenditure. Trapped wood mice that were subjected to intensive handling (intensive stressor) lost more weight than did animals that were handled minimally (less intensive stressor), but this was not the case for bank voles. Patterns and factors related to body weight change in response to intensive handling also differed between the two species: heavier and non-breeding bank voles were more likely to lose weight, but this was not true for wood mice, and none of the factors we measured was found to affect weight loss in this species. Our results were broadly consistent with the predictions of the biological cost hypothesis. We discuss the limitations and benefits of weight loss as a measure of stress.

Many studies on stress and pain rely, solely or mainly, on plasma Cortisol assessment. Confounding factors, such as handling, may cause a release of Cortisol making the interpretation of the results difficult. We looked at the influence of duration of restraint on the plasma cortisol levels of one-to-two month old calves. Forty-three calves were divided into four groups according to the interval between restraint and blood sampling: i) Group 0, immediate blood-sampling; ii) Group 0.5M, half a minute restraint; iii) Group IM, one minute restraint and iv) Group 2M, two minutes restraint. The only increase in plasma cortisol, compared with all the other groups, was seen with blood sampling after two minutes of restraint. This study provides evidence to suggest that cortisol released as a result of handling stress is not evident if blood sampling is carried out within one minute of restraining calves.

Farmers' behaviour towards their animals could be improved by developing training programmes designed to decrease handling stress and improve animal welfare. This requires key preliminary work to collate farmers' beliefs concerning beef cattle and their knowledge of how to handle them easily. This paper reports the preliminary results of a survey conducted in 2004 among Limousin farmers. Fifty-five percent of the 300 French beef cattle farmers surveyed returned a questionnaire covering ease of handling, husbandry conditions, attitudes towards cattle, and behaviour during handling and husbandry practices. The results revealed that farmers' attitudes were generally positive. However, variability within each item indicated the potential for improvement. Temperament of heifers or cows is the first trait considered in decisions on culling an animal. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed a relationship between positive attitudes towards animals and towards contact with the animals. Attitudes towards negative behaviour (hitting, shouting) during handling are independent of attitudes towards animals. Most farmers underline human contact followed by quality of the facilities for improving ease of handling. Surprisingly, 28% of the farmers surveyed did not recognise the genetic traits as an important factor in ease of handling. Farmers seem open to improving handling, in particular through positive human contact. These results combined with existing scientific knowledge and additional observations of handling will be useful in defining future training programmes for improving the welfare of beef cattle.

This study was designed to investigate the physiological responses induced in sheep (n = 18) by two different loading techniques followed by a short road journey. All animals were prepared with venous catheters, to minimize the disturbing effects of blood sampling, and nine sheep were fitted with heart rate monitors. The animals were loaded onto a transport vehicle in groups of three, alternately using a conventional tailgate ramp or a crate raised with a hydraulic lift. When all of the sheep were loaded, they were taken on a journey lasting 195min. Blood samples were collected in the home pen, directly after loading, and at 15min intervals during the journey. Measurements were made of plasma concentrations of Cortisol, prolactin and catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline). The results indicated that heart rate increased during loading, regardless of the method used. No changes in concentrations of Cortisol or the catecholamines were detected, although a small increase in prolactin was noted when animals were loaded using the ramp. During transport, all sheep exhibited increases in plasma Cortisol concentrations which were greatest during the first 2h of the journey. The results suggest that, under the conditions employed in this experiment, the effects of the two loading procedures were similar and that transport appeared to be more stressful than loading.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was trained to enter a chute system voluntarily and be caught one by one. The total duration of the training sessions was under six hours, with less than 15 total work-hours invested by three people. The result was an improved capture procedure which minimized risk to personnel and distress to the animals.

Two experiments were carried out to determine whether lighting conditions during handling affected heart rate or behaviour in farmed red deer. In Experiment 1 heart rate was measured in 24 individual deer, held under restraint in a mechanical deer crush for two minutes, under either dark (0lux) or light (1500lux) conditions. A stethoscope was used to monitor heartbeat which was indicated vocally by the stethoscope operator on to a Dictaphone. In Experiment 2, 10 groups of three deer were confined for four minutes in an unfamiliar 4×6m light-proof pen with lighting provided either on the left or right-hand side of the pen, to provide a gradient across the pen from approximately 12 to 1000lux. For the first two minutes the deer were alone and for the second two minutes a person stood in the pen. An infrared video camera was used to record behaviour.

In Experiment 1, heart rate was lower (P < 0.05) in the dark compared with in the light when recording commenced, thereafter it decreased overall with similar (P > 0.05) values observed for the different lighting treatments. In Experiment 2, the mean position of the groups across the pen varied according to whether lighting was on the left or right, with groups displaced to the right when the lights were on the left, and standing in the middle of the pen when the lights were on the right (P < 0.05). During testing, groups moved away from whichever side the lights were on (P < 0.05). The experiments suggested that stress during restraint was reduced by providing darkness and that deer preferred dim lighting compared with bright lighting when confined in unfamiliar surroundings.

White-lipped (Tayassu pecari) and collared (Pecari tajacu) peccaries can be farmed as an alternative to subsistence hunting in Neotropical countries. The animals often show high reactivity to handling, usually involving capture with a net, which is a cause for concern because it poses risks to both animals’ and keepers’ welfare. We aimed to assess the temperament of both peccary species, evaluating animals’ reactions during handling, providing an emotional indicator and a new animal selection criterion for peccary farms. Three indicators were used to assess the temperament of 17 white-lipped and 19 collared peccaries: qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA, by using 12 behavioural adjectives); time to drive each animal through a corridor into a chute (TD, s); and flight speed (FS, m s−1). A Principal Components Analysis was performed for the QBA data to define a temperament index (TI). White-lipped peccaries showed TI scores associated with worse temperament traits than collared peccaries. White-lipped peccaries showed higher TD and FS means than collared peccaries. We found a correlation between TD and FS, but not between TD and TI, nor between FS and TI. The lack of correlation between all temperament indicators occurred, probably, because they measure different aspects of peccaries’ reactions toward humans and the farm environment during handling. A wide phenotypic variability was found among individuals within both species’ populations. The results provide an opportunity to address the role of temperament assessment, improving handling procedures and exploring the possibility of including temperament as a selection criterion in captive breeding programmes.

Routine handling has been shown to affect stress levels in a variety of animal species. This could result in a general decrease in welfare and may confound the results of scientific experiments or observations on captive study animals. In reptiles, there seems to be variation in the effects of handling on stress levels. Furthermore, most studies on reptiles only look at the effect of handling in the short term. In this study we quantified the physiological and behavioural impact of being held, twice daily, for 1 min at a time over a three-week period on the green anole (Anolis carolinensis). Measurements were collected at the end of the three-week repeated handling period. Our results showed no effect of repeated handling on body mass, tail-base width, heterophil to lymphocyte ratios (H/L ratios), behaviour and faecal corticosterone metabolite (FCM) levels for both males and females in the experimental treatments (‘handled’, ‘unhandled’). Our study animals did score very highly for several stress-indicating variables in the three weeks preceding the experiments — suggesting that they had experienced considerable stress during capture, transport and temporary housing in the pet store.

Small mammals are routinely live-trapped and subsequently handled for a range of ecological and behavioural studies. Despite the techniques commonly employed being potentially stressful for the individual animals involved, it has hitherto been difficult to quantify the physiological impact. Here, we report on the first instance of using the Leukocyte Coping Capacity technique (LCC) in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) to investigate the physiological impact of routine trapping and handling techniques. Twenty microlitres of blood were obtained from 40 animals, of which 25 were handled following standard protocols and 15 were not. We found that even a short period of acute stress is sufficient to trigger an immune response which was measurable using the LCC technique. These results further validate the use of the LCC technique for measuring the physiological impact of standard trapping and handling treatments on wild mammals.

This study reports novel information on the animal handling, management and human-animal interactions in Indonesian cattle abattoirs. The slaughter of 304 cattle was observed and there was a high percentage of re-stuns in all abattoirs (range: 8-18.9%) when compared to a variety of international auditing guidelines. The average stun-to-neck cut time was within international recommendations (average: 9 s; range: 4-15 s). Time spent in lairage varied between animals and facilities and was compliant with international guidelines. Handling times were extremely variable (2 s-23 min 40s), but were only weakly correlated with a variety of handler techniques including the total number of handler interactions (sum of visual, auditory and tactile interactions, suggesting that long handling time does not increase handler interactions. There was a moderate correlation between the subjective handling scale and most of the objective behaviours, indicating that this may be a useful way to summarise handler behaviour in future assessments. The current study provides novel information about animal welfare in Indonesian abattoirs and highlights that management practices at the four abattoirs generally comply with international standards. The results also suggest that the subjective handling scale was moderately associated with the frequency of handler interactions, and so may be a useful measure of handler behaviour.

A welfare audit that utilises numerically scored, animal-based outcome measures has been used successfully by McDonald's and other restaurant companies for over ten years. In 2010, audit data from two restaurant companies indicated that all 30 of their North American plants rendered 95% or more of the cattle insensible with a single shot from a captive-bolt gun. Eight pork plants that used electrical stunning placed the tongs correctly on 99% or more of the pigs. All animals were insensible prior to hoisting. In 32 beef plants, the percentage of cattle vocalising in the stunning area was 5% or less. In 94% of the beef plants and 86% of the pork plants, none of the animals fell during handling. The worst falling score was 2% in two of the plants. High standards were attained by making simple changes. To improve welfare, plant managers did the following: improved stunner maintenance; installed non-slip floors in stun boxes and unloading ramps; and trained employees. To reduce balking and improve animal movement, the following modifications were made: illumination of dark race entrances; moving of lamps to eliminate reflections; reducing equipment noise; stopping employee yelling; installation of solid sides on races or shields to prevent animals from seeing activity outside the facility; and the elimination of air blowing in the faces of approaching animals. Employees were trained to use behavioural principles of animal handling such as the point of balance and the flight zone. The five numerically scored outcome measures in this audit are critical control points that can detect a variety of problems. They are: i) the percentage of animals stunned effectively with a single application of the stunner; ii) the percentage of animals falling during handling must be 1% or less to pass; iii) the percentage of pigs or cattle vocalising (moo, bellow, squeal) in the stun box or while entering into the stun box must be 5% or less to pass (vocalisation scoring is not used for sheep); iv) the percentage of animals moved with an electric goad; and v) the percentage of animals rendered insensible before hoisting must be 100% to pass an audit. An animal is scored as either silent or as a vocaliser and whether stunned correctly with a single application or not stunned correctly. The audit also contains a list of banned practices that will result in an automatic failure. To maintain improvements in handling, 23 plants have installed video cameras that are monitored by auditors viewing the footage over the internet. These external auditors perform numerical scoring at random times throughout the day. Video auditing over the internet is an important new tool for improving welfare.