In January, 1649, James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond, signed a treaty with the Catholic Confederacy, not knowing that the king on whose behalf he spoke was on trial in London. On January 30, 1649, Charles is executed, and a week later England became a republic, having a nonmonarchical form of government. A Council of State was created, and John Milton was appointed its “Secretary of Foreign Tongues.” The Council charged Milton to write observations on Ormond’s peace treaty and other recent documents from Ireland. The most geographically interesting reflection on Ireland to involve Milton’s work the resulting Articles of Peace offers a map of Ireland, a cultural and political geography overlaid on the ancient provinces of the island, to which Milton adds complicated interisland tensions, on the eve of Cromwell’s invasion of Ireland. Articles reflects the complexity of the situation in Ireland, ramified by English management: A Protestant Royalist signs an extraordinarily generous Peace Treaty with Irish Catholics; the Parliamentary representative in Dublin complains of English influence; the Ulster-Scots make the case for a Protestant Church in Ireland that is neither Anglican nor Episcopalian.

This chapter presents an overview of methods used in clinical assessment, classification, and diagnosis. After outlining the range of assessment options available to clinicians, it describes the typical goals of assessment, including diagnosis, description, treatment planning, and prediction. It also introduces some of the most important variables that affect a clinician’s choices about how to conduct an assessment, including its purpose, the clinician’s theoretical views, the psychometric properties of available assessment instruments, and other contextual factors. The chapter discusses the strengths and weaknesses of human clinical judgment when compared to AI and other actuarial procedures, focusing especially on the errors that clinicians tend to make but strive to avoid. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how the results of clinical assessments are communicated to clients and third parties, and the factors and formats associated with assessment reports.

Over the years, the Serengeti has been a model ecosystem for answering basic ecological questions about the distribution and abundance of organisms, populations, and species, and about how different species interact with each other and with their environment. Tony Sinclair and many other researchers have addressed some of these questions, and continue to work on understanding important biotic and abiotic linkages that influence ecosystem functioning. In common with all types of scientific inquiry, ecologists use predictions to test hypotheses about ecological processes; this approach is highlighted by Sinclair’s research that explored why buffalo and wildebeest populations were rapidly expanding. Like other scientists, ecologists use observation, modeling, and experimentation to generate and test hypotheses. However, in contrast with much biological inquiry, ecologists ask questions that link numerous levels of the biological hierarchy, from molecular to global ecology.

This opening chapter sets the stage for the book. Its first part describes the author’s first day at The Farm community and the personal journey that brought her to explore the aging experiences of hippies. The second part of the chapter provides information about the study that served as the basis for this book, and the third part briefly presents the books contents.

In this chapter the data assimilation problem is introduced as a control theory problem for partial differential equations, with initial conditions, model error, and empirical model parameters as optional control variables. An alternative interpretation of data assimilation as a processing of information in a dynamic-stochastic system is also introduced. Both approaches will be addressed in more detail throughout this book. The historical development of data assimilation has been documented, starting from the early nineteenth-century works by Legendre, Gauss, and Laplace, to optimal interpolation and Kalman filtering, to modern data assimilation based on variational and ensemble methods, and finally to future methods such as particle filters. This suggests that data assimilation is not a very new concept, given that it has been of scientific and practical interest for a long time. Part of the chapter focuses on introducing the common terminologies and notation used in data assimilation, with special emphasis on observation equation, observation errors, and observation operators. Finally, a basic linear estimation problem based on least squares is presented.

Chapter 10 describes Bayesian methods for parameter estimation and updating of structural reliability in the light of observations. The chapter begins with a description of the sources and types of uncertainties. Uncertainties are categorized as aleatory or epistemic; however, it is argued that this distinction is not fundamental and makes sense only within the universe of models used for a given project. The Bayesian updating formula is then developed as the product of a prior distribution and the likelihood function, yielding the posterior (updated) distribution of the unknown parameters. Selection of the prior and formulation of the likelihood are discussed in detail. Formulations are presented for parameters in probability distribution models, as well as in mathematical models of physical phenomena. Three formulations are presented for reliability analysis under parameter uncertainties: point estimate, predictive estimate, and confidence interval of the failure probability. The discussion then focuses on the updating of structural reliability in the light of observed events that are characterized by either inequality or equality expressions of one or more limit-state functions. Also presented is the updating of the distribution of random variables in the limit-state function(s) in the light of observed events, e.g., the failure or non-failure of a system.

Organizational ethnography has been crucial for the development of the field of Routine Dynamics since the beginning. It has altered the grain size of analysis and shifted the focus from the firm and its routines to the routine and the people, actions and artefacts that bring it to life. The discovery-oriented nature of ethnographic research has and continues to challenge the conceived wisdom of routines and their role in organizations. The majority of work in Routine Dynamics relies on ethnographic approaches and sensibilities. In this chapter, I review 43 studies and the various ways in which they draw on ethnography. Despite the wide variety of settings these studies have explored and the evidentiary approaches they draw on, I argue that Routine Dynamics research can draw on more novel and innovative forms of ethnographic research. This will allow scholars to address hitherto neglected aspects of routines, such as their emotional and aesthetic qualities, new contemporary phenomena that are of societal concern, such as inequality, climate change and epidemics, and make Routine Dynamics research more practically relevant.

This chapter describes tools that have been used to measure the effectiveness of corrective feedback ranging from classic instruments such as interactive tasks, to innovative methods recently adopted from related fields like psychology and educational measurement. As part of describing these measurement tools, we also discuss how factors in their use, such as the instructions, the participants, and their roles, need to be considered when assessing the efficacy of feedback. We describe tools used in classrooms and laboratory settings, including introspective methods such as think-alouds, immediate recalls, stimulated recall, interviews, journals, blogs, and uptake sheets, as well as external measurements. We outline the use of tasks in both face-to-face and computer-mediated contexts. We conclude our chapter with a discussion of future directions in measuring the effectiveness of corrective feedback on linguistic development and pedagogical implications.

Chapter 2 discusses the structure of gaseous protoplanetary disks. It begins by explaining how observations can be used to infer disk mass, disk structure, and stellar accretion rate. The vertical structure of a gas disk in hydrostatic equilibrium is derived, and the considerations that determine the surface density and temperature profile of a passive disk are described. The concept of the condensation sequence is outlined, along with the ionization and recombination processes that determine the ionization state. Physical processes that can produce large-scale structure in disks - zonal flows, vortices, and ice lines - are discussed.