Although the practice of human sacrifice in the British Iron Age is mentioned by multiple authors, both ancient and modern, physical proof of such activity in the archaeological record is comparatively rare. At Winterborne Kingston, in Dorset, the skeletal remains of a young adult female found face down near the base of a cylindrical storage pit provides clear evidence of violent death in the later Iron Age. Analysis of the skeleton suggests an individual who led a hard-working life and who, having suffered an act of violence a few weeks before death, was killed, possibly with her hands tied, by a blade incision to the neck. Placement of the body further suggests that killing was enacted within the pit, execution as spectacle forming the final act in a larger ceremony involving the creation of an animal bone stack or platform.

Medieval hospitals were founded to provide charity, but poverty and infirmity were broad and socially determined categories and little is known about the residents of these institutions and the pathways that led them there. Combining skeletal, isotopic and genetic data, the authors weave a collective biography of individuals buried at the Hospital of St John the Evangelist, Cambridge. By starting with the physical remains, rather than historical expectations, they demonstrate the varied life courses of those who were ultimately buried in the hospital's cemetery, illustrating the diverse faces of medieval poverty and institutional notions of charity. The findings highlight the value of collective osteobiography when reconstructing the social landscapes of the past.

The articles in this issue present bioarchaeological case studies from across the globe, including North and Central America, East Asia, Europe, and the Near East. Some bioarchaeology projects are new and others are decades old, but common challenges emerge as researchers apply conservation standards to real situations in the field: a lack of training or resources for long-term curation of human remains, the lag between excavation and analysis of remains, and environmental challenges that include melting permafrost, tropical storms, and a variety of pests such as molds, fungi, bats, snakes, and insects. The studies also address ethical considerations about the use of digital images of human remains, molecular and isotopic methods that require the destruction of human tissue samples, the ability of fast-paced cultural resource management (CRM) projects to address the needs of descendant communities, and the responsibility that we have to the people we study. Techniques for addressing these challenges include new computer programs, more advanced photographic software, and research on the effects of conservation techniques that provide new “standards” for bioarchaeologists. We highlight the importance of each contribution and discuss the future of conservation in bioarchaeology.

In small developing countries like Belize, lack of funding for archaeological research and post excavation curation remains one of our greatest challenges to preserving our tangible cultural heritage. The state of curation of human remains and artefact collections at St. John's College in Belize City is a perfect example of what can go wrong in the absence of a properly funded and managed curation program both at the national and the institutional level. This article highlights the rediscovery of a historically significant group of over 70 human remains in the biological collection of Friar Deickman, which had been forgotten in an attic after his death in 2003. We outline the process of, and accomplishments in improving the curation conditions of these individuals while uncovering their importance to Belizean history in the eighteenth through twentieth centuries. Preliminary analysis reveals life histories of slavery and indentured servitude of individuals of African, Maya, European, and possible mixed African and European descent. We emphasize the importance of ethical responsibility in properly curating excavated human remains, and the challenges researchers face when poor curation results in lost provenience. We offer suggestions for scientific analysis in recovering information lost as a result of poor excavation or curation methods.

The urohyal is incorporated within the hyoid and branchial arches and performs a significant role in the mouth opening-closing mechanism of fishes, and is considered a synapomorphy of teleostean fishes. Morphological variation of the urohyal, in terms of size and shape parameters, can allow species identification. Morphology of the urohyal in 49 species belonging to 43 genera and 29 families from the Persian Gulf and from the Oman Sea were compared using size and shape measurements. The results examine the suitability of using the urohyal morphology in differentiating fish species from this region; highlighting the taxonomic value of the urohyal, which until now, had been studied little in terms of use as a diagnostic feature in the classification of teleosts.

The appearance of the distinctive ‘Beaker package’ marks an important horizon in British prehistory, but was it associated with immigrants to Britain or with indigenous converts? Analysis of the skeletal remains of 264 individuals from the British Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age is revealing new information about the diet, migration and mobility of those buried with Beaker pottery and related material. Results indicate a considerable degree of mobility between childhood and death, but mostly within Britain rather than from Europe. Both migration and emulation appear to have had an important role in the adoption and spread of the Beaker package.

Patterns of formation and sequence of ossification of the entire skeleton are described for the snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina, based on new and previously published data. Differences in the sequences of ossification events are described and demonstrate considerable intraspecific variation in these developmental data. The chondrocranium of a late developmental-stage specimen is described and illustrated as baseline data for comparative studies. Patterns of formation and chondrification of forelimb and hind limb elements are generally consistent with those of previous studies; however, conspicuous differences in the patterns of ossification are observed among metapodial and phalangeal elements. In the cranium, patterns of ossification of dermal elements are generally more variable than are those of endochondral elements of the braincase, and as in previous studies, endochondral elements ossify after dermal elements. Documented intraspecific variation in sequence and timing of formation, chondrification, and ossification of skeletal elements should serve as a caveat for those conducting studies of phylogeny, heterochrony, and evolution with these data. Causes of natural and induced variation are discussed briefly.

Relative to body size, midsagittal and interpedicular diameters of the cranial and caudal aspects of cervical vertebral foramina (C3–C7) were found to be significantly (P < 0·05) larger in small breeds than in large breeds and Dachshunds, and also larger in Dachshunds (P < 0·05) than in large breeds. This condition increases the risk for spinal cord compression resulting from relative stenosis of the cervical vertebral foramina, especially in large dogs, and this is also exacerbated by the typical shape of the vertebral foramina (i.e. dorsoventrally flattened cranially and bilaterally narrowed caudally). Within large dogs those breeds highly predisposed to cervical spinal cord compression were Great Danes (the breed with the smallest midsagittal vertebral foramen diameters from cranial C6 to cranial T1) and Doberman Pinschers, because of the most strikingly cranially dorsoventrally narrowed cone-shaped vertebral foramina at C6 and C7. The existence of a small midsagittal diameter in the cranial cervical spine was a high risk factor predisposing to spinal cord compression in small breeds and Dachshunds. Remarkable consistency was noted between the spinal level of the maximum enlargement of the spinal cord which previously was reported to be at C6, and the site of maximum enlargement of the vertebral canal currently stated in Dachshunds and small breeds. In large breeds the maximum enlargement of the vertebral canal tended to be located more caudally at the caudal limit of C7. The average age at which large dogs were most susceptible to noxious factors causing abnormal growth of the pedicles was determined to be 16 wk.

The articular processes (AP) of the neural arch have been implicated in weight transmission through the cervical spine. To analyse the mechanism of weight transmission in the AP, we studied the direction of forces within it, in particular, the pattern of trabecular trajectories. Twenty-two AP from C4 vertebrae were studied in anatomical sections, and corresponding photoelastic models from selected sections were constructed and analysed. Anatomical and photoelastic findings show the subarticular spongiosa of the superior articular process (SAP) to be orthogonally arranged with vertical and oblique trabeculae in the direction of compressive forces and additional trabeculae always oriented perpendicular to the former. Vertical and oblique trabeculae are divided into rostral, middle and posterior groups. Rostral and middle trabeculae end in the anterior wall of the SAP and the transitional zone with the pedicle. Posterior trabeculae end in the subarticular spongiosa of the inferior articular process (IAP). The findings relating to trabecular trajectories in the SAP differ from previous descriptions and instead suggest that a part of the weight forces distributed within the AP transmit to the subchondral zone of the IAP. Knowledge of the trajectorial architecture of the AP may contribute to refining finite element analytical models for investigating its weight-bearing function.

This concludes a series of descriptive statistical reports on discrete cranial traits in 81 human populations from around the world. Four variants classified as vessel and nerve related characters were investigated: patent condylar canal; supraorbital foramen; accessory infraorbital foramen; and accessory mental foramen. A significant asymmetric occurrence without any side preference was detected for the accessory mental foramen. Significant intertrait associations were found between the accessory infraorbital and supraorbital foramina in the panPacific region and Subsaharan African samples. The intertrait associations between the accessory infraorbital foramen and some traits classified as hypostotic were found mainly in the samples from the western part of the Old World, and those as hyperostotic traits in the samples from eastern Asian and the related population samples. With a few exceptions, the occurrence of a patent condylar canal and a supraorbital foramen was predominant in females, but the accessory infraorbital and accessory mental foramina were predominant in males. The frequency distributions of the traits showed interregional clinality and intraregional discontinuity. A temporal trend was found in the Northeast Asian region in the frequencies of the accessory infraorbital and accessory mental foramina. The diversity of modern human discrete cranial traits may at least in part be attributable to differential retention or intensification from an ancestral pattern.

Five discrete hypostotic cranial traits, tympanic dehiscence, ovale-spinosum confluence, metopism, transverse zygomatic suture vestige, and biasterionic suture, were investigated in 81 human population samples. Except for ovale-spinosum confluence, marked asymmetric occurrences of the bilateral traits were not detected in the majority of the samples. Significant intertrait association was observed mainly between the biasterionic suture and other sutural variations including accessory ossicles. The traits showing relatively consistent sex differences across diverse populations were tympanic dehiscence, which is predominant in females, and biasterionic suture in males. On a world scale, the 5 hypostotic cranial traits showed distinctive patterns of geographical variation. Different clinal variations within and between macrogeographical areas such as western and eastern parts of the Old World were found for the frequencies of the traits. The Ainu may be the most distinct outlier in the eastern Asian region on the basis of the incidence of the traits, especially the transverse zygomatic suture vestige. The interregional variation without reasonable adaptive value and nonadaptive shift of the possible outliers presented in this study suggest that the genetic background for the occurrence of these traits cannot be excluded completely.

Four supernumerary ossicle variations—the ossicle at the lambda, the parietal notch bone, the asterionic bone, and the occipitomastoid bone—were examined for laterality differences, intertrait correlations, sex differences, and between group variations in the samples from around the world. Significant laterality differences were not detected in almost all samples. In some pairs of traits, significant association of occurrence were found. Several geographic samples were sexually dimorphic with respect to the asterionic bone and to a lesser extent for the parietal notch bone. East/Northeast Asians including the Arctic populations in general had lower frequencies of the 4 accessory ossicles. Australians, Melanesians and the majority of the New World peoples, on the other hand, generally had high frequencies. In the western hemisphere of the Old World, Subsaharan Africans had relatively high frequencies. Except for the ossicle at the lambda, the distribution pattern in incidence showed clinal variation from south to north. Any identifiable adaptive value related to environmental or subsistence factors may be expressed in such clinal variation. This may allow us to hypothesise that not only mechanical factors but a founder effect, genetic drift, and population structure could have been the underlying causes for interregional variation and possible clines in the incidences of the accessory ossicles.

Femoral neck fractures are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in elderly humans. In addition to the age-related loss of cancellous bone, changes to the microstructure and morphology of the metaphyseal cortex may be a contributing factor in osteoporotic hip fractures. Recent investigations have identified a hypermineralised tissue on the neck of the femur and trochanteric region that increases in fractional area with advancing age in both males (Boyce & Bloebaum, 1993) and females (Vajda & Bloebaum, 1999). The aim of this study was to determine if the hypermineralised tissue previously observed on the proximal femur is calcified fibrocartilage. Regional variations in the fractional area of hypermineralised tissue, cortical bone, and porosity of the cortical bone along the neck of the femur and lesser trochanter were also quantified. Comparison of back scattered electron and light microscope images of the same area show that regions of hypermineralised tissue correlate with the regions of calcified fibrocartilage from tendon and capsular insertions. The hypermineralised tissue and calcified fibrocartilage had similar morphological features such as the interdigitations of the calcified fibrocartilage into the bone, lacunar spaces, and distinctly shaped pores adjacent to the 2 tissues. Regions of the neck that did not contain insertions were covered with periosteum. There were no regional differences (P > 0.05) on the superior and inferior femoral neck in terms of the percentage area of hypermineralised calcified fibrocartilage, cortical bone, or cortical bone porosity. The lesser trochanter exhibited regional differences in the fractional area of hypermineralised calcified fibrocartilage (P = 0.007) and cortical bone (P = 0.007) but not porosity of the cortical bone (P > 0.05). The effects of calcified fibrocartilage on femoral neck periosteal expansion, repair, and mechanics are unknown, but may play a role in osteoporotic fractures and intracapsular fracture healing.

The variation in frequency of the Inca bone was examined in major human populations around the world. The New World populations have generally high frequencies of the Inca bone, whereas lower frequencies occur in northeast Asians and Australians. Tibetan/Nepalese and Assam/Sikkim populations in northeast India have more Inca bones than do neighbouring populations. Among modern populations originally derived from eastern Asian population stock, the frequencies are highest in some of the marginal isolated groups. In Central and West Asia as well as in Europe, frequency of the Inca bone is relatively low. The incidence of the complete Inca bone is, moreover, very low in the western hemisphere of the Old World except for Subsaharan Africa. Subsaharan Africans show as a whole a second peak in the occurrence of the Inca bone. Geographical and ethnographical patterns of the frequency variation of the Inca bone found in this study indicate that the possible genetic background for the occurrence of this bone cannot be completely excluded. Relatively high frequencies of the Inca bone in Subsaharan Africans indicate that this trait is not a uniquely eastern Asian regional character.

Morphological modification of the cetacean vertebral column for axial locomotion was one of many changes that occurred during and after the invasion of aquatic habitats by the ancestors of living whales. These modifications resulted in a column that can be divided into neck, chest, torso, and fluke structural and functional units. Variations in these units allow subdivision of living whales into three morphological groups that reflect differences in regional flexibility of the column and of locomotor style. Both odontocete and mysticete cetaceans exhibit trends toward reduction of relative centrum length in the neck and torso, restricting the flexibility of the column with increasing adaptation to aquatic lifestyles. Mysticetes and physeterid odontocetes retain the archaeocete pattern of constant vertebral shape along the torso, which acts as an undulatory unit. The location of secondary sites of reduced centrum length in non-physeterid odontocetes subdivides them into subgroups, one with reduced posterior, and the other with reduced anterior, torso flexibility. The relationships between particular osteological patterns and swimming styles in living taxa are used to support predictions of swimming style in fossil species after adoption of a fluke in the late Eocene.

Articular hyaline cartilage takes on the contours of the subchondral bone on which it lies, but its thickness varies between joints, within a single joint and within a single articular surface. Previous studies have correlated articular cartilage thickness distribution with the degree of stress and weight bearing on joint surfaces, but few studies have considered the thickness of the calcified cartilage in relation to these parameters. Here we report a correlation between the cartilage thickness distribution and weight bearing distribution on the head of the 1st metatarsal bone, a component of one of the major weight bearing joints in the lower extremity during the gait cycle. The greatest total and uncalcified articular cartilage thickness was found on the central and lateral distal aspects of the metatarsal head, a region that receives maximal ground reactive force during the propulsive phase of the normal gait cycle. Although the thickness of the calcified cartilage was correlated with the thickness of the uncalcified cartilage, it varied to a lesser extent across the articular surface than did that of the uncalcified cartilage.

The mechanics of mammalian intervertebral joints are complicated by the viscoelastic nature of the connective tissues joining vertebrae, and by multiple vertebral articulations and complex morphologies. Further, interspecific variation in these structures can greatly compound their functional variation between species, making comparative mechanical analyses even more difficult. Despite these sources of variation however, mammalian intervertebral joints universally exhibit a creep relaxation behaviour based on the viscoelastic nature of the soft tissue joint. We have evaluated, in 6 degrees of freedom, the mechanical signature of a novel mammalian lumbar intervertebral joint found in the Scutisorex spine, and compared it with a more typical mammalian joint in the Rattus (rat) lumbar spine. Scutisorex, the hero shrew, is an East African species of shrew with what is likely the most highly modified vertebral morphology in the entire history of mammals. Thus we decided to evaluate the mechanical behaviour of the intervertebral joint of this species, comparing it with a more representative mammal species in Rattus. We built a custom, 6 degrees of freedom, intervertebral joint transducer and a combined axial moment and load application system in order to quantify and compare the complex mechanical behaviour of these joints. Our results suggest that the Scutisorex joint is 5 times more resilient to simple axial torsion per body mass unit than Rattus, and that the complex load (combined axial compression and torsion) mechanical signature of Scutisorex is probably novel among all mammalian intervertebral joints. Under significant but physiological axial compression the Scutisorex intervertebral joint demonstrates no creep relaxation behaviour, simulating the mechanical behaviour of a rigid construct rather than a viscoelastic joint. The purpose of this rigid intervertebral joint in the ecology of Scutisorex remains unknown.

Although there has been extensive research on bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops), much controversy over the classification within this genus still exists. Even though many morphological variants occur, the prevailing view is for a single species, Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821). To evaluate this view, two sympatric forms of bottlenose dolphins inhabiting Chinese waters were examined using multivariate statistical analyses of osteological data for two meristic and 18 cranial morphometric characters from 71 specimens. Cluster and principal components analyses revealed clear osteological separation of the two forms. Furthermore, the distributions of the total number of vertebrae and several proportions of cranial characters were non-overlapping between the two forms. These results provided strong evidence that the two sympatric forms of Tursiops in Chinese waters are isolated reproductively and do not support the current view of a monotypic genus. Classification functions of a discriminant analysis and a key of several characters were developed to help researchers identify unassigned specimens. Provisional names (T. truncatus and T. aduncus) were suggested, but a formal taxonomic revision of this genus is still required. However, regardless of the nomenclature, immediate amendments to all present wildlife conservation legislation are strongly urged.