Reproductive activities of six giant panda females (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) living in the Qinling Mountains of China (Shaanxi Province) were recorded from 1989 into early 1995. Data on mating and birth dates, litter size, cub sex and den use were collected for three of the pandas. At this site, pregnant females migrated to lower elevations in advance of other pandas to seek dens for birthing. One dam was videotaped in the den with her cub from birth to the end of the denning phase at 94 days of age. This cub was repeatedly handled during the dam's absences to obtain data on development and weight. During the early part of the denning phase, the cub was maintained on the dam's body virtually continuously. Post-partum fasting for up to 3 weeks was noted. Dams invariably moved cubs to new dens three or four times during the birth season. By the time cubs left the den at about 3–4 months, they were fully furred and capable of surviving winter temperatures without further shelter. Reproductive parameters for the wild population fell within the range of values for captive pandas, based on information in the literature and in the giant panda studbook. The combined data on length of gestation, intervals between births, litter size and weight, infant development, and reproductive life span reveal a range of life-history variables that strongly resemble the Ursidae.

Two bovid frontlets with horns collected in 1929 and now housed in the collections of the University of Kansas Natural History Museum (KU) from Suoi Kiet, Binh Tuy Province, Vietnam, were previously identified as koupreys (Bos sauveli). We believe that they are specimens of the recently discovered bovid, Pseudonovibos spiralis Peter & Feiler, 1994. The KU specimens are represented by the posterior half of the frontal bones, the parietals, the horn cores and horns, and the anteriormost supraoccipitals, and are the most complete, best documented, and oldest specimens known of this poorly known species. We believe that both an adult male and an adult female are represented. Although the specimens are fragmentary, they still provide significant information that allows us to describe some aspects of P. spiralis, and they are especially critical to our understanding of the relationships of this animal to other bovids. We propose the English name spiral-horned ox, which reflects both its distinctively shaped horns and close relationship to other wild oxen. The Khmer name, Khting Vor, is also an appropriate common name. Previously overlooked references from the 1880s and 1950s document that the spiral-horned ox was believed to have magical powers over poisonous snakes.

The anatomy and histology of the thymus in monotremes and marsupials were revisited and several new observations made. Tissues of the mediastinum and/or ventral neck of 134 animals altogether (12 Australian marsupial and monotreme species) were examined and the locations of thymic tissues documented. Descriptions not previously recorded include the gross anatomy of the thymus in monotremes, the bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus, Isoodon obesulus), the wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons), and koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), as well as light and electron microscopic features in all species examined. In monotremes, thymic tissue was diffusely spread in the mediastinum and extended over the ventral surface of the pericardium. In the bandicoot, a small, deep cervical thymus was persistently present as well as the expected thoracic thymus and contrary to previous observations, a thoracic thymus was found in the wombat but not the koala. Both species also have a cervical thymus. In the marsupial species examined, additional thymic tissue was often present in the vicinity of the carotid bifurcations, in the deep ventral regions of the neck. In many animals, thymic tissue of deep cervical origin as well as thoracic thymus was mingled with parathyroid tissue. In several specimens, the two tissue types lacked intervening connective tissue barriers and at the electron microscopic level, attenuated processes of epithelial reticular cells were the only tissue components separating parathyroid and thymic tissues. The role of the cervical thymus in diprotodont marsupials remains to be elucidated. The presence of aberrant thymic tissue in marsupials is important in the interpretation of experiments involving thymectomy and immunological development because complete removal of thymic tissue may not occur. One aspect that has received little attention is the function of the thymic epithelial reticular cells in marsupial development and a suggestion is made that perhaps the extra thymic tissue found in marsupials provides extra epithelial reticular cells necessary for the production of cytokines and other secretions to sustain the development of immunological competence.

Morphological modification of the cetacean vertebral column for axial locomotion was one of many changes that occurred during and after the invasion of aquatic habitats by the ancestors of living whales. These modifications resulted in a column that can be divided into neck, chest, torso, and fluke structural and functional units. Variations in these units allow subdivision of living whales into three morphological groups that reflect differences in regional flexibility of the column and of locomotor style. Both odontocete and mysticete cetaceans exhibit trends toward reduction of relative centrum length in the neck and torso, restricting the flexibility of the column with increasing adaptation to aquatic lifestyles. Mysticetes and physeterid odontocetes retain the archaeocete pattern of constant vertebral shape along the torso, which acts as an undulatory unit. The location of secondary sites of reduced centrum length in non-physeterid odontocetes subdivides them into subgroups, one with reduced posterior, and the other with reduced anterior, torso flexibility. The relationships between particular osteological patterns and swimming styles in living taxa are used to support predictions of swimming style in fossil species after adoption of a fluke in the late Eocene.

The Namaqua rock mouse, Aethomys namaquensis (A. Smith, 1834), is a widely distributed species in southern Africa. Analysis of geographic variation among samples of A. namaquensis from southern Africa across a more comprehensive geographical coverage than has hitherto been considered for the species suggests the recognition of four subspecies: A. n. namaquensis (A. Smith, 1834); A. n. lehocla A. Smith, 1836; A. n. alborarius Peters, 1852; and A. n. monticularis Jameson, 1909, which differ both in cranial size and shape. The geographical limits of the proposed subspecies broadly coincide with major phytogeographical zones of southern Africa. This infraspecific taxonomic treatment of southern African A. namaquensis reduces the number of previously recognized subspecies or referred taxa from 16 to four. While the subspecies designations in this study are probably valid in terms of their constitution, their boundaries, however, require further refinement involving other systematic techniques, such as DNA analysis.

Several species of crabs belonging to the family Ocypodidae are burrowers; they inhabit tropical sandy and muddy shores, including mangrove swamps, exposed to extreme conditions of intertidal areas. Dotilla fenestrata, the only East African representative of the subfamily Scopimerinae, exhibits high flexibility in its burrowing activity. Only part of the population has an exclusively burrow-orientated activity, whereas most individuals form dense aggregations or droves, that during the phase of diurnal low water move away from the normal distribution zone. Burrows are built according to two different architectural designs, the feeding-trench burrow and the igloo, which then constitute their territory. A resident will lose a contest for the burrow when the attacker is larger. When the ground is uncovered at low tide, emergence can be delayed or even fail to occur, and some crabs remain buried during the entire low water period. Only 50% of crabs remain faithful to the original burrow, while the others either leave it to occupy an empty one or dig a new burrow, or join the wandering drove. The spatial distribution of burrows from the high water neap level (our reference point) to the sea, differs during both spring and neap tides, and both diurnal and nocturnal tides. The differences may be due partly to the change of physical conditions, such as drainage and substrate grade (although within a mangrove swamp these do not follow a consistent gradient), but mostly may be related to the trade-off between the benefits and costs of living at different intertidal levels. With its burrowing and feeding activity leading to the re-deposition of excavated and pseudofaecal pellets, Dotilla plays a role as a sediment mover in this very specialized habitat. The results obtained from this study are compared with those reported in other ocypodids.

Foraging flocks of red-billed choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) were studied in the Gran Sasso National Park (Apennines, Central Italy) to assess the relevance of neighbour distance and group size upon vigilance, after controlling for other confounding variables (feeding frequency, air temperature and time of the day). Both partial correlation and multiple regression analyses clearly suggested that neighbour distance was the major determinant of the vigilant behaviour in the red-billed chough, even though group size would also exert a certain influence. As no significant correlation between the two variables was found, it can be assumed that the relationship between vigilance and neighbour distance is not spurious. Feeding frequencies were not significantly correlated with the other variables, except for temperature, for which a positive correlation was observed. Since the red-billed chough usually feeds on insects, which become more active and available as temperature increases, we suggest that the feeding frequency of the red-billed chough mostly depends on food availability. Our results are discussed in the framework of the hypotheses put forward to explain vigilance behaviour. The conclusion is that the ‘individual risk hypothesis’ explains the behaviour of the red-billed chough better than the ‘many eyes hypothesis’.

The diet of the Irish hare Lepus timidus hibernicus was investigated in Northern Ireland. Faecal pellets were collected at regular intervals from three contrasting study sites and from a number of randomly selected sites from known land classes. Microhistological techniques were employed to analyse the pellets. Grass species occurred in high percentage frequencies in all samples of faecal pellets and a wide variety of plant species were represented (up to 26 species in one study site). In a stratified, random survey of the presence of hares, areas of lowland intensive agriculture had fewer positive records than expected. It is contended that L. t. hibernicus may not be able to sustain viable populations in areas of intensive agriculture, which are almost exclusively composed of ryegrass Lolium spp.

The Italian hare (Lepus corsicanus De Winton, 1898), formerly considered a subspecies of the European brown hare (L. europaeus Pallas, 1778), is an endemic species recently revalidated by genetic analyses. We performed univariate and multivariate analyses to assess morphological discrimination between L. corsicanus and L. europaeus. A clear morphological discrimination in body and skull measurements between Italian hares and European hares was evident. Our results are consistent with the morphological observations in the historical specimens and with mtDNA data. Furthermore, no morphological hybrid was found even in areas where viable populations of the two species coexist in sympatry. Despite the original distribution of the Italian hare, it is impossible to determine a clear boundary between the two species because of human introduction of L. europaeus for hunting. Populations of L. corsicanus have been recorded from central Italy to Sicily, with a fragmented distribution and sometimes in sympatry and syntopy with populations of L. europaeus. However, in Sicily the Italian hare is continuously distributed, locally abundant and no stable European hare populations have been found. Although the conservation of the Italian hare needs to be understood better, urgent conservation and management strategies are required to avoid the threat of extinction for local populations.

Fifty radio-tagged long-tailed bats Chalinolobus tuberculatus, belonging to three social groups numbering on average 72–132 bats each, ranged over an area of 11 700 ha in Nothofagus rainforest in the Eglinton Valley, Fiordland, New Zealand, during the austral summers of 1993–96. Bats were followed for 12.7 ± 6.3 (sd) days. Home-range sizes were among the largest published for Microchiroptera. Median minimum convex polygons (100% MCPs) for adult males were 1589 ha (max = 5629 ha), 1361 ha for post-lactating females, and 657 ha for non-reproductive females. Ranges of lactating females (median = 330 ha), were significantly smaller. Juveniles that were volant for < 2 weeks had the smallest ranges (median = 237 ha) but movements increased significantly after c. 2 weeks to a median of 2006 ha. Movements were frequent and rapid within the range (790 ± 471 sd m/15 min) and average range lengths were 3.3–10.9 km (max = 19 km). Despite their large home ranges, bats concentrated their activity (85% of fixes) in small core areas that represented a mean of 5.7 ± 1.5% (sd) of the 100% MCPs. Ranges of roosting sites were also small, averaging 9.4 ± 1.8% (sd) of total range size. Bats followed similar movement patterns each night but core areas only overlapped by 43 ± 14% (sd) from one night to the next. Moderately low levels of overlap of home ranges (31–68%) and of core areas (23–56%) among individuals of the same reproductive class suggest a degree of spatial segregation among bats from the same roosting group. A prediction that C. tuberculatus has large ranges to minimize overlap between foraging bats, reflecting scarcity of food, requires testing. Range sizes were probably underestimates of seasonal, annual, and life-time range requirements. Nevertheless, large range size and the degree of individual spacing implies that conservation areas designed for bats should be large and that protection of roosting areas alone would not be sufficient to protect bat populations.

An analysis of predator–prey ratio and guild constancy was made for 41 099 insects from 31 Acacia tree canopies in north-east Tanzania. A strong proportionality between predator–prey species richness, abundance and biomass was found, with reduced major axis slopes not statistically different from one. Predictions of five existing hypotheses to account for predator–prey ratios were tested: the energy ratio and common determinants of diversity hypotheses were well supported and most likely to explain the pattern reported here. Since predator–prey ratios can be considered a special case of the general guild constancy problem, it was also investigated whether species and biomass shares of guilds differed between six tree species and nine sampling localities. For most guilds no significant differences were found and both energy ratio and common determinants of diversity hypotheses might explain the observed general pattern of resource division in this ecological community.

Moulting and copulation by the barnacle Tetraclita japonica attached to an intertidal concrete pier were observed continuously with a video camera housed in a plastic case in summer 1996 and 1997. In a total of 779 individual-day observations, 10 individuals became sexually receptive as functional females and 14 moulted. Copulation occurred not only immediately after, but also before moulting. Duration of receptivity varied from 2 min to nearly 12 h, during which functional females accepted between two to 582 penis insertions by between one to 11 surrounding males. Each insertion time was short, ranging from 0.6 to 42 s, with a median of 2.4 s. Sex role changes were observed between two animals located close to each other, the shortest interval for which was 3.3 h. No significant size differences were detected between functional males and females. A temporal pattern of copulation, with a high frequency of penis insertions of short durations, is discussed in relation to natural habitat conditions.

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature