This chapter deals with missing data and a few approaches to managing such. There are several reasons why data can be missing. For example, people can throw away older data, which can sometimes be sensible. It may also be the case that you want to analyze a phenomenon that occurs at an hourly level but only have data at the daily level; thus, the hourly data are missing. It may also be that a survey is simply too long, so people get tired and do not answer all questions. In this chapter we review various situations where data are missing and how we can recognize them. Sometimes we know how to manage the situation of missing data. Often there is no need to panic and modifications of models and/or estimation methods can be used. We encounter a case in which data can be made missing on purpose, by selective sampling, to subsequently facilitate empirical analysis. Such analysis explicitly takes account of the missingness, and the impact of missing data can become minor.

This chapter presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological first language (L1) attrition and drift in bilingual speech and introduces a new theory of bilingual speech, Attrition & Drift in Access, Production, and Perception Theory (ADAPPT). Attrition and drift are defined and differentiated along several dimensions, including duration of change, source in second language (L2) experience, consciousness, agency, and scope. We address why findings of attrition and drift are important for our overall understanding of bilingual speech and draw links between ADAPPT and well-known theories of L2 speech, such as the revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r), the Perceptual Assimilation Model-L2 (PAM-L2), and the Second Language Linguistic Perception model (L2LP). The significance of findings revealing attrition and drift is discussed in relation to different linguistic subfields. The chapter raises the question of how attrition and drift potentially interact to influence speech production and perception in the bilingual’s L1 over the life span; additional directions for future research are pointed out as well.

Mutual engagement between psycholinguistic and variationist sociolinguistic research is important: work to date shows quite different outcomes from these approaches. This chapter illustrates that, in general, heritage speakers maintain the grammatical structures and vocabulary of homeland varieties, in contradiction to widely held beliefs that language quickly “degrades” or is “bastardized” in immigrant communities, and in contradiction to many published studies about heritage languages. However, both approaches converge on finding change in one phonetic pattern in some of the languages analyzed. In this chapter, the potential sources of this apparent contradiction are explored, considering differences related to population, sample, methods of data collection, analysis, and predictors. This allows us to better understand whether, for example, reported “deficits” among heritage language speakers might be partly due to a deficit in test-taking and experience with formal contexts in the heritage language. It closes with a proposal for more coordinated work across methods.

The chapter presents a broad overview of current research on the formal properties of Slavic languages developing in heritage language settings. Representative studies on heritage Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Serbian, and Croatian are synthesized along the following grammatical dimensions. In the nominal and verbal domains, I review properties of the heritage Slavic case and gender systems and the encoding of temporal distinctions through aspect and tense morphology. At the levels of sentence organization and discourse structure, I survey word order change pertaining to the syntax of clitics and the placement of clausal constituents to convey information-structural distinctions. The concluding discussion identifies the key overarching principles underlying the changes attested across the surveyed linguistic varieties and outlines directions for future studies in heritage Slavic linguistics.

Explains the damage done to the German army in 1916 and its poor state at the end of the year. Then describes German remedial action before the major Entente offensive expected in spring 1917: introducing new tactics and improved training; Hindenburg Line withdrawal; increasing the number of divisions on the Western Front; new equipment and organisational structures.

Entente plans to exploit the precarious German situation by simultaneous offensives on the Western Front, Eastern Front and in Italy. After describing the Anglo-French part of this plan, the chapter outlines German foreknowledge of and countermeasures against the offensive. Gives a detailed account of the western battles – Arras including Vimy Ridge and Bullecourt; Nivelle offensive including Aisne, Chemin des Dames, Champagne and Oise; Messines. Links grand strategic, strategic, operational and tactical developments. Outlines events in Russia (Kerensky offensive) and Italy (Isonzo and Asiago), and summarises the overall results of the offensive.

The vast majority of children grow up in bilingual or multilingual households, but the extent to which they develop advanced linguistic abilities and even literacy in all their languages depends on many factors. These include age of acquisition of the two languages, the amount of exposure to and use of the languages daily and in specific or diverse contexts, and the status of the languages in the society, including access to schooling. For some simultaneous and sequential bilingual children, one or more of their languages is a minority language not widely spoken outside the home and with little cultural, educational, social and political status. In some other circumstances, the language or languages can be minoritized, available beyond the home but considered lower in status in the society. In this chapter, I discuss research on the development of the minority/heritage language(s) in simultaneous and sequential bilingual and multilingual children, with specific focus on the school-age period. I focus on how bilingual balance and language shift in these children and in many cases lead to language attrition and incomplete acquisition of morphosyntactic aspects of the minority language.

This chapter considers ICL’s applicability to a variety of real-world situations involving the production of mass suffering and/or death through relatively slow, unspectacular forms of harm causation. It identifies various examples of situations that, upon careful analysis, appear to have involved the commission of one or more international crimes, yet failed to conform to the atrocity aesthetic. These potential crimes have also been afforded comparatively scant attention, especially in comparison to more spectacular forms of atrocity, despite often being massive in scale and gravity, suggesting that their aesthetic unfamiliarity has contributed to, or at least facilitated their relative invisibility, socially and legally, as potential international crimes.

In research on heritage speakers, it is often observed that areas of core syntax tend to be resilient and resemble the relevant baseline. This chapter discusses this generalization and provides examples of areas that tend to be resilient and areas that are vulnerable. Research into the syntax of heritage speakers has tended to focus on certain areas, such as argument structure and the representation of null arguments, meaning that a lot of grammatical domains have not been sufficiently explored. This chapter nevertheless tries to summarize the main findings and outline important methodological and theoretical issues that any work on heritage syntax needs to consider carefully. Examples of the latter include the question of what the appropriate baseline for comparison is, and how to adequately separate morphology and syntax. Empirically, the chapter will consider lexical categories, passives, and verb second as examples of relatively resilient areas of syntactic representations. In terms of areas that are more vulnerable, it will look at word order, long-distance dependencies, and discontinuous dependencies.

Strengthening economic activity in 1955 led to rising interest rates that forced the Fed to stand up to its commitment to support Treasury offerings priced at market levels. This chapter describes the development of “even keeling” – the practice of stabilizing the Treasury market while the Treasury was offering new securities – and the continuing preference for repos, rather than outright purchases and sales, for offsetting short-term fluctuations in autonomous factors.

This chapter introduces the basic principles of experimental design, covering fundamental control groups,such as approaches of control for subject loss or for order of treatments.

dedicate sufficient forces and use them decisively. In the Korean War, the US failed to grasp opportunities to decisively defeat the enemy and failed to commit forces sufficient to bring about a quick conclusion to the struggle. The result was an attritional stalemate. In both the Korean and Vietnam Wars, the US overestimated and misunderstood the effectiveness of airpower. Moreover, the US has also too often failed to understand that winning in a counterinsurgency struggle hinges upon three key factors: gaining the support of the people, eliminating insurgent sanctuaries, and isolating the insurgents from outside support.