Geophysical data from Dawn’s mission revealed complex and divergent internal structure evolutionary paths for Vesta and Ceres. Dawn’s data indicated that Vesta has a differentiated internal structure with uncompensated topography and Ceres is partially differentiated with compensated topography. Vesta experienced a magma ocean state, leading to effective early shape relaxation. Vesta’s current non-hydrostatic shape is dominated by Rheasilvia and Veneneia impact basins, formed when Vesta was too rigid to relax. However, northern terrains still reflect its pre-impact, closer-to-hydrostatic shape. Ceres incorporated abundant volatile material upon its accretion and subsequently underwent ice–rock fractionation. Observed surface aqueous alteration indicates extensive past hydrothermal circulation that facilitated efficient heat transfer and preserved Ceres’ interior in a relatively cool state. Lower viscosities at depth allowed isostatic compensation of Ceres’ long-wavelength topography. The high inferred abundance of water ice, hydrated salts, and/or clathrate phases suggest previous globally significant regions of solute-rich fluids that froze from the surface inward, leading to the vertical density gradient inferred from Dawn’s Second Extended Mission (XM2) high-resolution gravity data. This, coupled with thermal modeling, indicated that Ceres could have brine reservoirs, at least regionally, which were likely mobilized by the Occator crater-forming impact, leading to long-lived brine extrusion and faculae formation.

The Dawn mission revealed that Ceres’ interior underwent partial differentiation and aqueous alteration, probably in its early history. The dwarf planet also preserved brines until present, at least on a regional scale. This chapter addresses the various processes involved in shaping Ceres’ interior based on the Dawn observations and knowledge gained from the analysis of carbonaceous chondrites and from observations of other icy worlds. The Dawn results highlight the importance of better understanding the extent of the feedback between geophysical and chemical evolution in ice-rich bodies. In particular, brines produced as a consequence of aqueous alteration can drive geological activity and the transfer of material from the deep interior to the surface. The four main evolution pathways proposed to explain Ceres’ current state are assessed against observational constraints. Most of these models offer explanations for the presence of deep brines below Ceres’ crust. However, uncertainties in the density of Ceres’ mantle and the extent of the brine reservoir prevent converging on the most likely evolutionary path. Altogether, the knowledge gained at Ceres can be applied to other icy worlds, and in particular to dwarf planets and icy moons with limited tidal heating.

The chapter explores the water–energy nexus associated with conventional and unconventional (tight) oil exploration, provides water-intensity values associated with conventional oil drilling and enhanced oil recovery, and hydraulic fracturing. The chapter explores the source, volume, geochemistry, and water quality issues of conventional and unconventional oil produced water. The chapter explains the nature and origins of oil field brines, as well as the inorganic (salts, metals, and naturally occurring radioactive elements) and organic constituents. The chapter evaluates the impact of oil produced water on the environment, as well as the ability to reuse oil produced water for beneficial use. The chapter explores the water use and quality associated with oil sand extraction and processing and possible environmental effects as well as oil refining. The chapter evaluates the impact of oil spills on water resources. The chapter examines policy mechanisms that influence the extent of environmental externalities that have emerged from oil production and exploration, including government regulations, forms of corporate society responsibility, and types of contracts.