We compared the pregnancy and live birth rates following transfer of early-stage embryos or blastocysts produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer using in vitro-matured oocytes. In total 102 ovaries were collected from dromedary camels at a local abattoir; from these 1048 cumulus–oocytes complexes (COCs) were aspirated and cultured for 42 h in a commercial maturation medium. Metaphase II oocytes were subjected to nuclear transfer. Somatic cell nuclear transfer-derived embryos were cultured in a commercial embryo medium for 2 or 7 days. Next, 71 early-stage embryos were surgically transferred to the left fallopian tube of 28 recipients and 47 blastocysts were transferred to the left uterine horn of 26 recipients. Early pregnancy was detected by serum progesterone (P4), and pregnancy was confirmed using ultrasonography on days 30 and 90 after embryo transfer. Pregnancy rate based on P4 level was 17.86% (5/28) and 11.54% (3/26) for early-stage embryo and blastocyst transfer, respectively. In the early-stage embryo group, out of five recipients, one recipient had lost the pregnancy by the first ultrasonography on day 30; two other recipients aborted at 14 and 24 weeks, and two recipients gave live births. In the blastocyst group, out of three recipients, one lost the pregnancy at an early stage and two recipients gave live births. Therefore, for dromedary camels, we recommend transvaginal blastocyst transfer from the standpoint of the pregnancy and live birth rate, ease of the transfer procedure, and comfort and safety of the recipients.

Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is adapted to survive the harsh environments. It has some key adaptation peculiarities in various organs. In this study, we aimed to map the distribution pattern of unique regulatory devices along the course of the pulmonary vessels using histological and histochemical analyses. Arteries with variable wall thickness and spirally oriented course were recorded within the adventitia of the main pulmonary artery. Throttle arteries and glomus bolsters were found within the wall of the lobar pulmonary artery. The bronchial artery was located within the wall of all bronchi reaching the subsegmental branches and it had elastic longitudinal muscular intima bolsters. Arteries with double muscular media were demonstrated in the pulmonary pleura. These bolsters are suggested to play a complicated role that allows for hemodynamic, humeral, and thermoregulatory activities. The lumen of some subsegmental pulmonary veins revealed occasional constrictions arising from the corresponding muscular pad-like protrusions of the tunica media. These veins may possess occlusive or constrictive mechanisms and their obstruction induces engorgement of the associated capillary bed in addition to restricting venous outflow. Collectively, these data strongly recommend a crucial role for the special regulatory devices in preserving the camel pulmonary function in the harsh desert environment.

Hydatidosis is a potential zoonotic helminthic disease affecting a broad spectrum of mammals, including humans, worldwide. The current review was conducted to investigate the genotypic status and prevalence of hydatid disease in camels across the world. For the purpose of the study, the articles addressing the worldwide prevalence of hydatidosis in camels were searched in several English language databases. The search process resulted in the inclusion of 122 papers. Based on the data presented in the reviewed articles, the pooled prevalence of hydatid disease in camels across the world was measured at 23.75% (95% CI 20.15–27.55). Moreover, the subgroup analysis demonstrated significant differences in the overall prevalence of hydatidosis among camels based on year, geographic area, climate parameters, camel population, gender, infected organ, fertility rate of the cyst and laboratory diagnostic technique. Furthermore, the Echinococcus granulosus genotypes identified in camels with hydatidosis included G1, G2, G3, G1–G3, G5, G6, G7, G6–G7 and G6–G10, with G6 being the most common genotype throughout the world. The data obtained from the current study are central to the better conceptualization of the biological and epidemiological characteristics of E. granulosus s.l. genotypes around the world, which can be helpful in the planning and adoption of more comprehensive control strategies.

The vascular and perivascular cells, including telocytes (TCs) and immune cells, play an important role in male fertility. The current study intended to describe in detail the microvascular structures harboring special regulatory devices in addition to the interstitial cellular components of the one-humped camel epididymis. The samples were collected from 10 clinically healthy mature camels (Camelus dromedarius). The distribution and characteristics of TCs, peripheral blood vessels of the epididymis, and immune cells were investigated using the light, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy analyses. Frequent occlusive or throttle arterioles were demonstrated in the epididymal interstitium and their tunica media consisted of glomus cells. In addition, some vein walls consisted of one or two layers of glomus cells. TCs, fibroblasts, muscle cells, and tunica media of the blood vessels, that present in the loose connective tissue surrounding the intertubular interstitium of camel epididymis, showed a positive reaction with vimentin. The endothelium of blood vessels and veins showed positive immunoreactivity for CD34 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Furthermore, VEGF, CD34, and S100 proteins were expressed in dendritic cells (DCs) as well as TCs. The current data suggest the involvement of DCs and TCs in angiogenesis and a possible role for the interstitial components in creating an appropriate milieu for the full maturation of sperms.

Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto is regarded to have the highest zoonotic potential of all Echinococcus taxa. Globally, human infection due to this species constitutes over 88.44% of the total cystic echinococcosis (CE) burden. Here, we report a CE infection in a Nigerian camel caused by E. granulosus G1 genotype. To the best of our knowledge, this report is the first encounter of the G1 genotype in the West Africa sub-region where the G6 genotype is reportedly prevalent, suggesting that the epidemiology of this highly zoonotic group could have a wider host range and distribution in the sub-region, and emphasizes the need for further investigation into the genetic diversity of Echinococcus spp. in Nigeria and across the sub-region.

This study aimed to optimize the derivation of trophectoderm from in vitro-produced camel embryos under feeder-free culture conditions using the basement membrane matrix Matrigel. Trophoblastic vesicles were obtained through mechanical microdissection of in vitro-produced camel (Camelus dromedarius) embryos. Supplementing the culture medium with 10 ng/ml of epidermal growth factor and 10 ng/ml fibroblast growth factor improved the attachment and subsequent outgrowths of cultured trophoblastic vesicles when compared with the control group and the groups supplemented individually with each growth factor. The expression levels of pluripotency genes octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (Oct4), sex determining region Y-box 2 (Sox2), myelocytomatosis proto-oncogene (c-Myc) and anti-apoptotic gene B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) were increased in trophoblastic vesicles supplemented with both growth factors when compared with the control group. Conversely, both growth factors decreased the expression of apoptotic genes tumour protein p53 (p53) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax). To the best of our knowledge, this may be the first report describing the derivation of trophoblast stem cells from in vitro-produced camel embryos.

The key role of the epididymis is contributing to sperm storage, maturation, and survival. The epididymis of camel has a unique structure called the intraepithelial gland. The present work aimed to investigate the structure of the epididymal intraepithelial gland with special references to the seasonal variation. The samples were collected from the distal part of the corpus epididymes of completely healthy mature camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the breeding and nonbreeding seasons. Tomato lectin-positive material had been demonstrated within the epididymal spermatozoa. Here, we provide the first transmission electron microscopic study for the intraepithelial gland of camel epididymis detecting the autophagy during the nonbreeding season. The autophagosomes originated from the endoplasmic reticulum, surrounding mitochondria, and located mainly next to the basement membrane. This location is probably valuable for subsequent passing of their contents into the interstitium for possible recycling. The histochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of the gland in the breeding season indicated a hyperactive secretory microenvironment enriched with the glycoprotein-producing machinery, which could be controlled by androgens. The present data suggest that the camel intraepithelial gland has a significant impact on the reproductive activity through their secretory microenvironment during the breeding season. Moreover, it recycles the unused organelles or proteins for reuse or to supply energy under stress conditions in the nonbreeding season.

In order to evaluate milking ability in dromedary camels, 124 milk flow curves were registered during morning milking of 20 dairy Maghrebi dromedary camels. Animals were in lactations 1–8, were 6–19 years old and were 4–15 months of their current lactation. Milk flow curves were recorded using an electronic milk flow meter (Lactocorder®). Milk flow curves were classified in three typical patterns: type 1 represents curves with one high and short peak of milk flow; type 2 represents curves with a moderate mean milk flow rate during a large plateau phase; and type 3 represents curves with lower mean milk flow rate and a relatively longer milking duration. The ratio of the different milk flow patterns in the population evaluated was 40:38:22% for types 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The highest milk yield per milking, average and peak milk flow were observed in camels with type 1 curves (4·24 kg, 1·49 and 3·54 kg/min, respectively) followed by type 2 animals (3·30 kg, 1·12 and 2·12 kg/min, respectively) and lastly type 3 curves (2·34 kg, 0·65 and 1·23 kg/min, respectively). This study confirmed that a major proportion of dromedary camels have a suitable machine milking ability. Nevertheless, our results suggest that pre-stimulation and improving the milking process may improve milking efficiency and guarantee a more complete and rapid emptying of the udder.

The stability of camel α-lactalbumin (α-la) against heat denaturation was measured, using circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy, as well as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The experiments were performed in the presence of saturating concentrations of calcium as well as in the presence of EDTA, yielding to the apo form of α-la. The change in heat capacity (ΔCp) suggests a greater contribution of hydrophobic interactions to the stability of holo camel α-la than in its bovine counterpart. Overall the results obtained in this study suggest a greater stability of camel α-la than the bovine protein in both holo and apo states. Also CD experiments showed similar secondary structure for camel and bovine α-la and secondary structure of camel α-la was better preserved than that of bovine α-la during heat denaturation. The differences in thermal stability between the proteins from two species can be primarily ascribed to the difference in the quantity of hydrophobic interactions involved in their folding.

The present study investigated the suitability and importance of buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats and pigs in maintaining the life-cycle of Echinococcus granulosus in Aligarh, India. A total of 565 (36%) of 1556 buffaloes, 20 (2%) of 1208 goats, 5 (1%) of 559 pigs, 6 (6%) of 109 sheep and two of three camels were found to harbour hydatid cysts. The frequency distribution of the hydatid cysts in each intermediate host species was over-dispersed and in buffaloes cyst fertility increased with increasing cyst size. Of 2171, 95 and four buffalo, goat, and camel cysts examined 327 (15%), two (2%) and three cysts respectively were fertile. No pig or sheep cysts were found to contain protoscoleces. The unfenced buffalo abattoir and the large number of dogs allowed access to the abattoir coupled to the number of buffaloes slaughtered in comparison to the other potential hosts, indicates that the buffalo is the most significant host for maintaining the life-cycle of the parasite in this area of India. Applicable control measures for the region are suggested.

In different areas of the world, strains of Echinococcus granulosus have been described which appear to vary in their infectivity, and laboratory primates have been used as indicators of their infectivity to man. This phenomenon was evaluated in Kenya for hydatid material of human, camel, cattle, sheep and goat orgin. Viable eggs, produced by experimental infections in dogs with larval material from all the above intermediate hosts, were fed separately to four baboons (Papio cynocephalus) in each case. Baboons were autopsied between 373 and 501 days following infection and the liver, lungs, heart, spleen and kidneys were thoroughly inspected. Hydatid cysts were recovered from two baboons in each of the camel, sheep and goat groups, three baboons in the cattle group and none of the baboons in the human group. Fertile cysts were found in the cattle and goat groups and it is suggested that the baboon could be used as an experimental model for this parasite.

In the Tambool area (Central eastern Sudan) a survey was made of the infection rate of Echinococcus granulosus in dogs. From the total of 49 dogs shot by the police authority, 25 (51%) had E. granulosus in their intestines. The range of worm recovery was 7 to 28,400. These high infection and recovery rates could be explained by the rate of infection in the intermediate host (camel) slaughtered in the area.

In this study, two sheep, eight dromedary camels and two Bactrian camels were inoculated with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) type A SAU 22/92. Five naive dromedary camels and four sheep were kept in direct or indirect contact with the inoculated camels. The inoculated sheep, which served as positive controls, displayed typical moderate clinical signs of FMD and developed viraemia and high antibody titres. The presence of the virus was also detected in probang and mouth-swab samples for several days after inoculation. In contrast, the inoculated dromedary camels were not susceptible to FMDV type A infection. None of them showed clinical signs of FMD or developed viraemia or specific anti-FMDV antibodies despite the high dose of virus inoculated. All the contact sheep and contact dromedaries that were kept together with the inoculated camels remained virus-negative and did not seroconvert when tested up to 28 days post-inoculation (p.i.). In comparison with the non-susceptible dromedaries, the two inoculated Bactrian camels showed moderate to severe clinical signs of FMD; however, the clinical signs of FMD appeared rather late, between 8 and 14 days p.i., compared to the inoculated sheep. Characteristic FMD lesions in the Bactrian camels, accompanied with severe lameness, were only observed on the hind feet. The presence of the virus in the serum samples of both Bactrian camels was detected by real-time RT–PCR in one of the animals on days 3 and 7 p.i. and in the second animal from days 1 to 3 p.i. and subsequently again on day 21 p.i. The Bactrian camels developed high titres of antibodies to the inoculated FMDV which appeared at 7–10 days p.i. and lasted up to 130 days p.i. Only low and transient amounts of FMDV were detected in the mouth-swab and probang samples collected from both Bactrian camels.

The Mewari and Jaisalmeri breeds of camel are among the four major breeds of Indian camel. The Mewari breed is known for the production of milk and its adaptability to the hilly terrain of the Aravali hills in south Rajasthan whereas the Jaisalmeri breed is known for its riding and race potential. A total of 320 camels from 16 herds in eight villages belonging to three districts of the major breeding tract of the Mewari camel were covered. The population of the Mewari camel was estimated to be 16 221 heads with a 28% decline in the last five years. The extent of cross breeding was estimated to be 36%. The average adult Mewari camel had a 193 cm height at wither, 194 cm heart girth and 158 cm body length. Adult Mewari camels produce about 700 grams of hair per annum and the females produce 5–7 litres of milk per day. An integrated rotational grazing pasture development programme could be of great use in maintaining the Mewari camels with diverse livestock species under optimum production.

To define the status of the Jaisalmeri camel, an investigation encompassing 1 760 camel breeders belonging to the 181 villages distributed over the entire strata of the tract was carried out. The population of the Jaisalmeri camel was estimated to be 118 083 heads with a 31% decline in the last five years. An adult Jaisalmeri camel had a 199 cm height at wither, 211 cm heart girth and 156 cm body length. Adult males and females weighed 593 and 519 kg, respectively. Emphasis should be placed on making the breedable males of the breed available throughout the strata and on improving the utility of the breed for in-situ maintenance of genetic diversity in the breed.

Colostrum and milk samples from twelve Tunisian camels were analysed for concentration of immunoglobulin G (IgG), α-lactalbumin (α-la), serum albumin (CSA) and lactoferrin throughout the first 14 milkings post partum (7 days of lactation) using single radial immunodiffusion assay. Concentrations (mg/ml, means±SD) at first milking were IgG, 100·7±60·4; α-la, 2·2±0·7; CSA, 8·5±3·6 and lactoferrin, 1·2±0·3. Large variations were recorded for IgG and CSA concentrations (11·8–211·1 mg/ml and 2·9–13·8 mg/ml respectively) Concentrations of IgG and CSA dropped abruptly in the subsequent milkings while α-la concentration increased until milking 5 and then decreased slowly. Lactoferrin dropped only from milking 7. Mean IgG concentrations were 3·6 and 2·5 mg/ml at milking 9 and 13 respectively. However, IgG concentration did not differ significantly, at the 1% level, from milkings 11 to 14. The contribution of CSA to the increase in whey proteins in early milks was greater than that described in the bovine and caprine species.

The major whey proteins IgG, serum albumin and α-lactalbumin were purified from camel milk using gel permeation and ion-exchange chromatography. Specific antisera against each of them were raised and used to quantify their heat denaturation in early or mature milk over a range of 60–90 °C for 10–60 min using the single radial immunodiffusion technique. The heat denaturation midpoints for the mature milk heated 30 min were 67·2, 73·0 and 77·5 °C for IgG, albumin and α-lactalbumin respectively. The early milk was more sensitive to heat treatment with coagulation at low temperature and heat denaturation midpoints of 64·8, 71·6 and 72·6 °C respectively. This difference was related to the high IgG content of the early milk (12·6 mg/ml v. 0·5 mg/ml for the mature milk) and stresses the importance of monitoring the IgG level of milk to assess the absence of colostrum.

A major problem in camel productivity is the high mortality rate of camel calves in the first 3 months. The causes for mortality are mainly poor management practice and infectious diseases. The purpose of this research, carried out on a ranch in Kenya, was to determine the immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration in camel colostrum as well as the extent of the calves' passive immunization by maternal antibodies. IgG concentration in colostrum and in the serum of the calf were measured during the first 3 d of life. Evaluation was carried out by comparing the respective values with those for horses and cattle. The average IgG concentration in the camel colostrum was higher than that found in literature for horses and cattle. IgG concentration in the serum of the camel calves reached its maximum 24 h after birth. In 39% of the examined calves, this maximum concentration was below 4 g/l, which is considered to be the critical value in horses and cattle. 61% of the calves achieved an IgG concentration of over 4 g/l. Since there is no correlation between IgG level in colostrum and early mortality, the results indicate that low colostrum intake during the first 24 h of life and not low IgG concentration in colostrum is presumably one of the main causes of early calf mortality. Therefore, it was recommended that the care of the newborn calves by herdsmen should be improved.

The Ladakh plateau is an arctic desert in the Western Himalaya having an annual rainfall of 8 to 9 cm. Extreme environmental conditions and persistent hypoxia affect the human and livestock populations. Limited grazing resources are the other limiting factor. Despite these hardships, a great variety of livestock species are available in Ladakh. The yak is the most important species for highlanders providing them subsistence in terms of milk, meat, fibres, skin and hides. It is an excellent pack and transport animal in snow bound passes. Male Yak hybrids with local cattle are excellent bullocks under the hypoxic environment. The small population of local hill cattle is endangered due to large scale crossbreeding with yaks and exotic cattle. The majority of goatsoin Ladakh are Pashmmina type. The Changthangi is an important goat breed. Local small sized sheep yield fine carpet type wool and resemble the Tibetan sheep. Zaniskari horses are in danger of extinction. Other horses and ponies available in Ladakh appeared similar to the Tibetan ponies. The local donkeys have a large bulging head with long hair. Only 54 Bacterin camels are left in the region. Poultry and pigs are not popular in Ladakh. Almost all livestock species have long body hair to survive in extreme climatic conditions.