The paper offers a cognitive linguistic analysis of metaphors informing the conceptualization of sentence structure. In line with cognitive linguistics, it is assumed that the construal of this highly abstract conceptual domain necessarily has a metaphorical basis. Accordingly, it is argued that key differences between alternative syntactic theories can be linked to the metaphorical choices they make. The paper begins with a critical comparison of constituency- and dependency-oriented syntax. The key virtue of the latter is seen in its ability to focus on relation types rather than unit types and unit boundaries. It is then argued that THE SENTENCE IS A BUILDING serves as the core metaphor underlying constituency analysis, whereas THE SENTENCE IS A FAMILY may play a similar role in dependency grammar. The final part of the paper discusses two instructive metaphors invented by Sámuel Brassai, both supporting a dependency grammatical understanding of sentences, namely THE SENTENCE IS A FEUDAL SOCIETY and THE SENTENCE IS A SOLAR SYSTEM. It is demonstrated that each of Brassai’s metaphors has its share of advantages and may be of great service to dependency grammar in language pedagogy.

The present chapter presents an overview of the core properties of two core types of wh-dependencies in Slavic languages: wh-questions and relative clauses. It focuses on the properties of these dependencies that Slavic languages are famous for, such as multiple wh-fronting and left branch extraction. Another property of Slavic wh-questions reviewed in this chapter is left-branch extraction and the correlation between the lack of overt articles and the availability of left-branch extraction. The second part of this chapter discusses relative clauses, including what might be dubbed non-canonical relative clauses, such as free relatives and correlatives.

This chapter examines individual, social, and environmental factors associated with judicial decisions in juvenile dependency and juvenile justice cases. The structure and process of juvenile justice decisions are described along with a brief comparison to the adult courts. Current models and recommended guidance on juvenile dependency and juvenile justice cases are explored. Factors reviewed include, but are not limited to, legal considerations (e.g., removal, reunification, transfer/waiver, pleas, and placements), judicial education and expertise (e.g., formal training and judicial stress), bias (e.g., racial and socioeconomic prejudice), parent and youth characteristics (e.g., age and gender), family dynamics (e.g., parental engagement, child and parent attachment, and exposure to substances use and abuse), trauma, hearing practice, and representation. The chapter synthesizes the body of current research, discusses limitations in the current juvenile dependency and juvenile justice literature, and provides recommendations for future directions in both basic and applied research as well as policy implications for the legal decision-making field.

Advanced age affected the performance of mastery, and some slavers saw the declining fortunes of another as providing them with the opportunity to rise at their expense. Concerns with – and contests over – the authority of aged enslavers did not end at their death. Wealth generated by slaveholding needed to be passed on, and the quest for profit and status that animated southern enslavers saw ferocious disputes erupt over the transferal of property between generations. Contests over wills and inheritance help reveal the complex and contested relations between enslavers, intergenerational tension in the American South, and shifting social hierarchies shaped by the passage of time. Antebellum enslavers prized the presumption of authority and craved respect from family, kin, and community. And yet, in legal challenges to wills, deeds, and bills of sale recorded posthumously, antebellum southerners revealed the disregard they held for aged enslavers’ claims of dominion, and their willingness to trash the reputation of fellow “masters” both before and after death.

Historians have long stressed the significance enslavers accorded to public demonstrations of authority, dominance, and independence, as well as the wider significance of these ideals to the dynamics of slavery. Recent work on the violence and exploitation of slavery has reiterated the terrifying power enslavers wielded, and the harm this caused to enslaved people. In presenting enslavers as such dominant figures, however, there is a danger that we confirm their own self-image as masterful even while rejecting their claims of benevolence. A more nuanced narrative becomes possible when we consider how the performance of mastery came under pressure – both internal and external – as enslavers aged. Enslavers could not stop time from marching on and the pressures associated with aging – both real and imagined – wreaked havoc on their public and private claims of dominance. Enslaved people understood that mastery was never ordained, but instead embodied. Bodies, Black and white, enslaver and enslaved, were all subject to the “ravages of time.” Knowledge of this fact was applied when enslaved people crafted individual and collective strategies for survival and forms of resistance.

This chapter shows how the push for profit and dominance, and the dynamics of slavery, affected white southerners’ dealings with elderly “masters.” As enslavers aged, they could be forced to fight against the rising generation who looked at them and saw dependency and submissiveness, instead of autonomy and mastery. These traits – and general binaries of power/powerlessness – were understood as bound up with the racializing discourse of slavery and the gendered dynamics of patriarchy. Elderly enslavers – both men and women – sometimes came to believe that advanced age was a relation of powerlessness that marked them as closer to enslaved than enslaver and which served to unsettle existing power relations in the community. Those who fought against such depictions confronted communal perceptions of their inability to enact mastery, and these battles had particular emotional effects. Cross-cultural scholarship argues that communal assumptions of incapacity can be humiliating, and this chapter emphasizes how aged enslavers grappled with these perceptions. These old slavers are not objects of pity, but their experiences reveal the culture of exploitation that drove antebellum slavery.

Poverty is a contentious and complex construct, an archetypal “thick” discourse, encapsulating the traces of social, economic, political, and historical struggles. Diverse poverty scenarios past and present all share a gendered core with specific cultural form and meaning. The author argues that gendering, the most powerful technique of social ordering at the heart of modernity, helped launch European poverty discourses and policies into the global orbit. From medieval Europe to the present and following the pathways of “poverty” projects across cultures, gender dynamically draws around itself a changing cloak of corporality, values, dispositions, practices, materialities, and legal regulations. At defining historical moments, these gendered forms became attached to other social arrangements of inequality, like class and race, but also to spatial divisions between “private” and “public” and a temporal contrast between the so-called primitive and civilized. Interventions in the name of Western poverty constructs led to an increasing feminization of poverty and the poor worldwide, woven from perceived attributes of domesticity, dependency, and deviancy.

In this chapter, we discuss three classes of phenomena that are captured by the terms dependency and licensing, in clauses and nominal expressions: (i) the structural relation between a lexical head (e.g., V, N, A) and the functional structure projected by it such as the relation between a verb and an auxiliary or between a noun and a determiner; (ii) the selectional relation between a lexical head and the constituents that are combined with it to satisfy its argument structure, as in the case of the verb and the direct object; and (iii) the structural relation created by two different constituents that share the same referential index. In the third case, we observe two major types: a constituent is displaced, as in the case of the subject of a passive clause or a wh-constituent; or two constituents share the same referent but have different functions in the clause (or in different clauses), as is the case of pronouns and their antecedents. The dependencies dealt with in the first two cases are ‘local’, while the others can be long distance. Most of the analyses of the dependency phenomena relate the relative richness in inflexional morphology to variation in word order, argument marking, agreement, and the realization of pronominal reference.

This chapter considers South India, in the period of 500-1500 CE, focusing particularly on the region that is today Tamilnadu. Based primarily on the evidence of stone inscriptions, as well as religious literature composed in Tamil, it argues that slavery must be understood within the framework of a large and complex system of dependency and hierarchy. Virtually all members of society – whether attached to the land or land-owners, or part of the “households” of Hindu temples or royal courts – were bound into relationship of dependency. These relationships were not systematized and caste identities and hierarchies were not fixed. Categories of persons evidently of “lowly” status, such as the paraiyar, might in some cases have been enslaved agricultural laborers but also appear in the inscriptions as temple patrons. Women who were sold to temples were assigned menial domestic duties but sometimes also performed high-status ritual services. The social reality of servitude and slavery in medieval South India, especially in connection with what was probably the extensive use of slaves in rice cultivation (from the 13th century onward), is only hinted at in the inscriptional sources, and in Hindu religious literature was transformed into an idiom of devotion.

Chapter 7 assesses the cost and bene?ts of China’s commercial conditionality by employing extensive qualitative evidence, including more than 200 interviews with Chinese creditors and Latin American debtors, and in some cases, examining the original loan contracts. This chapter also evaluates the extent to which China can foster good governance and sustainable development without policy conditionality. For example, these loan provisions, which typically involve some combination of Chinese foreign content and commodity guarantees, are designed to improve the global competitiveness of Chinese ?rms. However, they may also impose costs on Latin American countries. Preferential treatment for Chinese capital inputs and machinery may undermine Latin America’s industrial competitiveness. At the same time, commodity guarantees embedded in loans-for-oil agreements risk eroding commodity proceeds that could otherwise be channeled toward domestic spending or reinvestment in state energy ?rms. Perhaps most important, China’s tendency to focus on commercial rather than policy terms may encourage governments to spend beyond their means, catalyzing future debt problems.

This chapter considers how Alzheimer’s narratives written by and about women are using literary forms to explore the relations among gender, personhood, and care. Feminist theory has developed a powerful arsenal for challenging ageism directed toward the female body and the social devaluation of aging women but has been less adept at reframing narratives about dependency and cognitive change that inevitably come with advanced age, and are amplified by age-related Alzheimer’s. I argue that narratives Gerda Saunders and Elinor Fuchs highlight the limitations to our current ways of imagining the gendering of age-related dependency, and offer ways of thinking otherwise. I am particularly interested in how narrative portrays the temporalities of dementia; how individual narratives manage the formal challenges of representing a self that is in the process of being irrevocably transformed; and how, in the bleakest situations, care givers and receivers find glimpses of unexpected intimacy, compassion, and interconnection.

In chapter seven, we examine the more direct material impact of the rise of China on the North Korean economy. This is examined through the lens of the broader debate regarding the impact of China’s rise on developing countries. We argue that while North Korea’s trade relations with China do resemble the resource dependency found in many Global South countries, North Korea has in recent years become increasingly integrated into cross-border regional production networks, with textile manufacturing being outsourced to North Korean producers as well as the growing dispatch of North Korean labour to China as a result of ongoing economic shifts within China itself. Although this relationship can be conceptualised as a form of economic dependency, North Korea’s economic collapse in the 1990s preceded its growing economic relations with China. In this sense, China has played an important facilitative role in North Korea’s economic recovery following the 1990s. However, concerns with the North Korean leadership regarding import dependency on China have in recent years led to a policy emphasis on domestic import substitution, a strategy that has had some success, albeit at relatively low levels of production.