This chapter describes new music in Paris in the late 1960s, the period when the young spectral composers were students at the Paris Conservatoire. It opens with an account of Messiaen’s composition class and how elements such as neumes and Messiaen’s analyses of Debussy and Ravel informed Grisey’s, Murail’s, and Levinas’s emerging musical sensibilities. After giving a brief biographical account of those latter composers and Roger Tessier, the chapter touches on serialism’s changing status at a time when it had begun to be taught at the Paris Conservatoire; the effect of May ’68 on the Conservatoire’s pedagogy and on musical mores more generally among young composers; Fifth Republic France’s increased funding for new music festivals in regional cities such as Royan; Boulez and Xenakis’s profiles as the two most influential composers in France; and collectives, aleatoricism, and music theatre in post-1968 composition. The chapter closes with an account of Grisey’s early student works, in particular their creative adaptation of Messiaen’s personnages sonores concept towards the construction of audibly distinct musical figures, which would become a key element in Grisey’s musical style.

The composer-performer collective l’Itinéraire, founded in 1973 by Murail and Tessier, was the de facto platform for spectral music in France. This chapter shows how l’Itinéraire formed with the aim of establishing an organ for the music of the youngest generation of French composers, and how, with the demise of Boulez’s Domaine Musical ahead of the opening of IRCAM, l’Itinéraire fortuitously found itself positioned as the successor to that Parisian new music series, endorsed by Messiaen and recipient of a state subsidy. The chapter details how Grisey composed Périodes, a l’Itinéraire commission and the first work composed from his Les Espaces acoustiques cycle, and how Grisey attended the acoustics laboratory at the Université Paris VI Jussieu, where, alongside lessons in musical acoustics, he absorbed the work of Abraham Moles on the application of information theory to art. The chapter also shows how Murail began to incorporate the models of spectral harmonicity and periodicity into his music from Tigres de verre onwards, and it explores the relationship of these instrumental compositional techniques to the computer sound synthesis work of Risset and Chowning.

The book’s conclusion situates spectral music as a modernist musical movement. It shows how spectral music reprises many of serialism’s concerns, albeit on a more psychoacoustically accurate level. It relates the debates between Levinas and the other spectral composers to an older debate about formalism in art between Flaubert and Sand. Finally, the book concludes by situating Grisey as the founder of spectral music.

Spectral music as a distinct movement began in 1976, when, within a few days of each other, Murail’s Mémoire-érosion and Grisey’s Partiels were both premiered by Ensemble l’Itinéraire. This chapter explores how, driven by the theorist Dufourt, the young composers associated with l’Itinéraire developed a theoretical identity in contradistinction to Boulez and IRCAM. As well as detailing the salient qualities of Grisey and Murail’s music in this period, the chapter explores the diverse spectral music of Dufourt, Levinas, and Tessier. Dufourt’s works Erewhon, La tempesta d’après Giorgione, and Saturne engage with insights regarding sound related to his encounters with Risset and Chowning. Levinas’s works like Appels foregrounded sonic parasitism and a dramatic spectacle far removed from the more reserved forms of Murail, of which the chapter shows Levinas to have been at times a public critic. Tessier’s music in this period was expressionistic and explored electroacoustic resources. As well as detailing these various spectral sub-currents, the chapter explores the role of l’Itinéraire’s performers in helping to develop performing techniques adequate to the spectral writing.

The introductory chapter to Gérard Grisey and Spectral Music: Composition in the Information Age situates the book’s historical narrative by focusing on correspondence between Grisey and Dufourt in 1980 discussing what name they should give their common musical movement:’ spectral music’ or ‘liminal music’. This matter of naming indicates the compositional values the composers prioritised: movement over stasis, thresholds over states, psychoacoustic phenomena over traditional notes and pitches. The chapter then gives an overview of the book’s argument that spectral music developed from serialism through embracing information theory and developments in psychoacoustics and computer sound synthesis. Inasmuch as it arose in France but depended on developments that occurred at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA, spectral music was transatlantic in origin and signified a paradigm shift in musical composition.

Chapter 4 describes the field of cognitive science, which is the arena where all those who study “intelligent systems” (“minds“) get together to compare notes. A shared idea is that the mind can be understood as an information-processing computational system. We will see how during the 1960s renewed interest in the mind from different academic disciplines emerged as a reaction to the denial of the mind of an approach to psychology called behaviorism. We then discuss the various strands of thinking in a variety of different fields that led to this “cognitive revolution.” We learn that there are fundamental, opposing views in this field that are relevant to the nature–nurture debate. Despite differences, a general understanding within cognitive science is that the mind can be studied at different levels of abstractness and from different angles which to some extent compete but also complement each other.

This chapter shows how graphic novels have not only become more colorful over the last two decades but also more visually complex. The chapter surveys discussions of the graphic novel’s literary complexity, from Richard Corben’s early Bloodstar to Alan Moore’s Watchmen. This reappropriation of a modernist strategy models itself on the rise of the novel but also reacts to a long-term audience decline for comics. Section 4.2 builds on recent uptakes of complexity in digital literary and digital film studies to advance computational measurements that combine image and text recognition. The final pages return to Moore and Alison Bechdel to assess the relevance of complexity for the popular success and cultural prestige of individual comic books.

A review of basic probability theory – probability density, expectation, mean, variance/covariance, median, median absolute deviation, quantiles, skewness/kurtosis and correlation – is first given. Exploratory data analysis methods (histograms, quantile-quantile plots and boxplots) are then introduced. Finally, topics including Mahalanobis distance, Bayes theorem, classification, clustering and information theory are covered.

This chapter elaborates Bayesian information-theoretic principles for optimal case selection and practical rules of thumb for real-world contexts.

There is a correlation between the phonological shape of a word and the word’s probability in use. Less probable words tend to be longer and more probable words shorter (see Piantadosi et al. , Zipf ). This has been attributed to the lexicon evolving for efficient communication (Zipf ). To identify less probable words, listeners need more information from the segments in the phonological word itself. In this case, longer lengths for less probable words mean a greater amount of information to be used in word identification. However, this does not take into account how listeners actually process words. Research in spoken word recognition has shown that words are processed incrementally and some segments may in fact be more informative (Allopenna et al. , Luce and Pisoni , van Son and Pols , Weber and Scharenborg ). Here, we use corpus data from American English to provide evidence that less probable words contain more informative segments. We also show that the distribution of segmental information is correlated with the word’s probability and that less probable words contain more of their total information in the early segments. We discuss these findings and possible evolutionary avenues for language to reach this state. This work provides support for the idea that the words in the lexicon evolve under pressure for efficient communication.

Anti-evolutionists often employ the closely related mathematical theories of information and combinatorial search. We introduce both of these fields, present the major anti-evolutionist arguments, and then explain why they are wrong.

Part IV centers on the flow of information that becomes news stories. Close analyses of source–fixer–reporter interactions that informed reports on the Turkish government’s crackdown on domestic critics and on the country’s July 2016 coup attempt show, concretely, how fixers transform the information that passes through them from source to reporter. From the ways they prepare reporters for interviews to the words they choose when interpreting between Turkish and English, fixers cannot help but shape reporters’ perceptions and so the news. Fixers nonetheless operate within the tight constraints of news organizations’ framings of events and templates for coverage. Fixers’ interventions into information transmission are patterned by socially constructed but idiosyncratic moral considerations: their personal and political aspirations, as well as their desire to harmonize emergent conflicts between the parties they broker.

This chapter examines two fundamental issues regarding the nature of firms. First, why are they necessary in the business environment? Second, what are their objectives? Addressing these issues involves various aspects of theory which are not always associated with economics: transaction cost theory, property rights theory, motivation theory, information theory and agency theory. Regarding the first issue, the necessity for the existence of firms may appear to be self-evident, but on closer examination we can see that many transactions can be performed between individuals without firms existing at all. The problem is that with complex activities the transaction cost of engagement as individuals can be high, whereas internalizing transactions within firms can reduce this cost. The second issue regarding objectives begins with the concept of profit maximization, and then examines the various assumptions underlying it. Various problem areas related to these assumptions are identified, in particular: the existence of agency problems, the measurement of profit, risk and uncertainty, and multi-product firms. The impact of these problems on firms’ objectives is discussed.