We provide a practical overview of the most important steps of behavioral observation and coding, with a focus on how these processes are typically executed within social and personality psychology. The chapter has six main sections. We begin by explaining what is meant by behavioral observation and coding, and we outline the strengths and challenges of this method. We then describe two guiding principles that apply throughout observation and coding. Next, we highlight several aspects of observation and coding for researchers to consider, many of which vary along a continuum. We also discuss practical questions regarding coding, such as the number of coders needed. We describe the analysis of behavioral data – from establishing inter-rater agreement to running models with the coded behaviors as outcomes of interest. Lastly, we discuss concerns related to automated processing of videos and text and topics related to the open-science movement.

How do we find a candidate phenomenon in interactional data? In this chapter we examine a number of methods for doing so. We make an initial distinction between observations and discoveries. Drawing on the cumulative experience of a number of conversation analysts, we provide some guidelines to help analysts develop observations into discoveries. We then investigate a range of approaches to identifying action: the heart of CA method. This includes an overview of Schegloff’s analytic ‘keys’ as a way into data. All of these approaches have the radically inductive methods of CA at its core. However, there are other starting points, and we discuss some of these alternative ways of bringing CA methods to bear on the data of interaction.

This is the first ever printing of a short unpublished note by Schrödinger discussing canonical conjugates, which he included among his correspondence in the folder he labelled ‘The Einstein Paradox’. The note references Flint’s response to EPR and contains ideas appearing also in a letter to Einstein in July 1935.

This is a reprinting of Ruark’s response to the EPR paper. Ruark puts the EPR debate down to disagreement over the criterion of reality. Ruark states that the majority of physicists will, pace EPR, consider this criterion satisfied even when the elements of a theory correspond only to indirectly measured features of reality.

Clare had the good fortune to be born into a period of excitement and experimentation in poetry. Ideas about poetry were changing, as were practices of reading and writing. This chapter examines how Clare participated in these changes. He helped to elevate the meditative lyric to the pinnacle of literary prestige by showing how everyday experiences yield pleasure and insight; by using forms with roots in oral and folk cultures, including popular song; and by modelling his poems on the music of nature and the structure of bird nests. He took part in contemporary experiments with form, language, and voice. His poems draw on the philosophical atmosphere of the Romantic age by offering readers opportunities carefully to observe Clare’s world and, by doing so, to come to know it.

The aim of this chapter is to reconceptualise climate politics as a struggle to name the problem and thereby determine how it is known and acted upon. I suggest that underpinning the visible elements of contestation over the reality of climate change, who is responsible and by how much, is a struggle over order – the distribution of economic, social and political resources and the values that organise it as such. Describing the politics of climate change as a field of activity orientated around determining the meaning of the problem enables me to situate the IPCC centrally within this struggle as the key site in producing international assessments of the issue. The IPCC’s role in establishing collective interest in climate change and the knowledge base for action has generated the structures and forces in which the IPCC as an organisation and method for producing authoritative ways to know climate change has emerged, which in the book, I identify as the IPCC’s practice of and for writing climate change.

This introduction lays out the justification for the book and its methods, situating the idea of observation historically. It establishes the stakes for the role of printmaking in developing visual skills and introduces the content around which the observer’s eye was trained: cosmography, physiognomy, and anamorphosis.

Medicine teems with anecdotes, brief, pointed accounts of healthcare episodes, informed by observations and narrative arguments. Initially denoting hitherto undivulged, but notable, historical events, anecdotes narrated by doctors were not easily distinguishable from clinical cases. Those recounted by patients and carers in the modern era are the subject of this chapter, which investigates how they grasp, size up, and characterize human vulnerabilities, resulting from illness and inequalities in healthcare knowledge and power. An unregulated and anti-authoritarian idiom that does not seek to isolate events and experiences from subjective thoughts and feelings about them, these sorts of anecdotes can critically evaluate medical services and glimpse the truth about healthcare situations. Contemporary medicine, however, views anecdotal observations and viewpoints as biased and untrustworthy. Despite the current climate of scepticism concerning anecdotal information, anecdotes remain prolific oral and literary interventions, that provide vital insights into the interpersonal and social relations of healthcare.

Chapter 6 introduces scientific inquiry in the early years. This chapter describes the inquiry-based approach to learning science, where children are actively involved in finding the answers to questions. The scientific inquiry process of identifying and posing questions; planning, conducting and reflecting on activities and investigations; processing, modelling and analysing data; evauluating evidence, and communicating findings is presented. The following science inquiry activities that can be used with young children are described: observation, observation and measurement over time, classification, skills activities, research activities, conducting a survey, exploration activities and fair test investigation. Various case studies demonstrate these activities.

Chapter 21 concludes with a discussion of the ways in which professional development opportunities can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice in language learning. The authors present individual and collaborative practices, as well as internal and external experiences that educators may seek out to deepen their conceptual understanding and practical skills.

“In the early eighteenth century, Britain sought to establish itself as the centre of a global knowledge network and, as part of its imperial ambitions, all of nature was subjected to scientific scrutiny and potential control. Swift’s protagonist Lemuel Gulliver recognises his potential as a broker of knowledge within numerous transnational, transcultural, and trans-species encounters, padding his empirical, observational prose with enumeration and comparison in order to convey information about supposedly faraway lands and peoples. Swift’s vignettes of interspecies or intercultural viewing ironise the colonial contact zone, revealing the partiality, contingency, and relative value of British and European scientific knowledge, and, ultimately, undermining notions of national or racial superiority upon which visions of empire rest. Gulliver’s Travels is itself a remarkable encounter, between literature and science, and the parameters of that engagement are partly defined by the colonial project, with the seemingly objective activity of observation implicated in imperial tyranny and exploitation. In scientific observation, Swift found a discursive mode around which he could structure an entire prose satire whilst also probing its intellectual and moral limits, placing the process of observation itself under satiric scrutiny.”

What kind of discourse was Freud’s psychoanalysis? A typical late-nineteenth-century positivist, Freud claimed that it is was a scientific, empirical psychology based on the always revisable observation of clinical data and distinguished it sharply from the a priori, meta-physical “speculations” of philosophy. Except that the ultimate object of psychoanalysis, the unconscious, is by definition beyond consciousness and therefore also beyond observation. So what distinguishes Freud’s psychoanalytic interpretations and “constructions” from philosophical speculations? In the end, what distinguishes his “metapsychology that leads behind consciousness” from a metaphysics? This is the question that this book attempts to answer by following Freud’s way of thinking, step by step and as closely as possible to the texts.

Visitors to resorts were enveloped in a new world that had the casino and its pleasures at its core. The novel forms that the institution assumed in the nineteenth century represent a change in the structure as a whole. The casino did important cultural work in the imaginations of nineteenth-century observers, recalling other social spaces, from the court to the church, and offered a contrast to other locations associated with nineteenth-century modernity. The architectural elements that were not directly related to gambling had the subsidiary purpose of keeping people within the physical confines of the building so that they would return to the gambling tables. Nineteenth-century casinos were anchored in attempts to generate and encourage certain forms of middle-class sociability. The casino produced an environment in which the emotions were unmoored, and new sensations attacked any previous emotional core that visitors possessed. Unlike other spaces that channeled emotion – the cathedral or the court – the nineteenth-century casino did so in the service of play, pleasure, and financial gain.

This chapter details the practical, theoretical, and philosophical aspects of experimental science. It discusses how one chooses a project, performs experiments, interprets the resulting data, makes inferences, and develops and tests theories. It then asks the question, "are our theories accurate representations of the natural world, that is, do they reflect reality?" Surprisingly, this is not an easy question to answer. Scientists assume so, but are they warranted in this assumption? Realists say "yes," but anti-realists argue that realism is simply a mental representation of the world as we perceive it, that is, metaphysical in nature. Regardless of one's sense of reality, the fact remains that science has been and continues to be of tremendous practical value. It would have to be a miracle if our knowledge and manipulation of the nature were not real. Even if they were, how do we know they are true in an absolute sense, not just relative to our own experience? This is a thorny philosophical question, the answer to which depends on the context in which it is asked. The take-home message for the practicing scientist is "never assume your results are true."

Violence and aggression remain common reasons for admission to psychiatric wards, and violence and aggression commonly occur in inpatient psychiatric units. Furthermore, exposure to violence and aggression has a deleterious impact on patient and staff safety, treatment outcomes, staff morale and performance, and on the therapeutic environment. The chapter begins with a discussion of clinical governance and of factors that contribute to violence. The importance of service user and carer involvement is emphasised, as is the need to create a safe and therapeutic ward environment. Sexual safety and comorbid substance misuse is mentioned. Principles of managing acutely disturbed behaviour and the prediction of violence in inpatient settings are summarised. Readers are also reminded of issues pertaining to observation, de-escalation, seclusion and restraint. The extra care area, therapeutic interventions, meaningful activity and the role of psychologists on acute wards to reduce the risk of violence and restricted practices are discussed. The chapter concludes with considerations regarding pursuing criminal proceedings against violent perpetrators and inpatient care in the context of COVID-19.

This chapter documents the widespread influence of experimental philosophy in eighteenth-century Germany. We first argue that Christian Wolff, the most influential German philosopher of the period, engaged at length with the methodological views of experimental philosophers and relied extensively on experience as the foundation of his own philosophy. However, his focus on developing a comprehensively deductive philosophical system ultimately overshadowed his commitment to basing philosophy on experiments and observations. We then show how the pair of experimental and speculative philosophy became enshrined in the structure of the Berlin Academy as a result of the rebranding of its disciplinary classes in 1746. Turning to the second half of the eighteenth century, we focus on the uptake of the methodological views of experimental philosophers in the literature on empirical psychology that flourished in the period; the reflections on the relation of experimental and speculative philosophy of Johann Nikolaus Tetens, a proponent of empirical psychology who influenced Immanuel Kant; and the contrasts between experimental and speculative methods in a range of works published toward the end of the century. As Kantian and post-Kantian philosophies rose in popularity, a priori reflection gained increasing acceptance and experimental philosophy went out of fashion.

This chapter discusses the historical origins and emergence of the distinction between experimental philosophy and speculative philosophy. It opens with a summary of certain disciplinary-specific shifts in the late Renaissance that led to an increased appreciation of the value of experiment and observation. It then turns to the crucial traditional distinction between speculative and practical knowledge, which can be traced all the way back to Aristotle and was central to medieval and Renaissance understandings of the disciplines. Traditionally, natural philosophy had been classed as a speculative science, but interesting new approaches can be found in Roger Bacon, in the practice of natural magic, and in mechanics. These developments paved the way for the emergence of Francis Bacon’s division of natural philosophy as having a speculative and a practical, or operative, side. Francis Bacon’s heirs were to embrace his emphasis on the role of experiment in the operative side of natural philosophy, and by the 1660s in England a new form of operative natural philosophy emerged that its practitioners and advocates called experimental philosophy. In many contexts, it was set against the older, speculative approach to natural philosophy.

Emotions and creativity are seemingly ubiquitous in our everyday lives. If so, why aren’t observational methods used to study them more frequently? This chapter first provides a brief history of observation science and differentiates between quantitative and naturalistic observations. Four observation challenges are outlined. Tips for planning, designing and implementing observation studies of creativity and emotions include clarifying definitions creativity and emotion that can be adequately operationalized for the purposes of observation, connecting the theoretical framework to the observation method of choice, developing observation protocols, clarifying the observer role and addressing validity, reliability and principles of generalizability and transferability. Observation protocols are described for studying theatrical performance (quantitative), creative engagement in science-based instruction (mixed methods) and empathy development in leaders’ creative problem solving using improvisational theatre (qualitative). The conclusion discusses the importance of the contribution of observation to the continued growth of the field of creativity studies and emotion research