Chapter 5 starts with the definitions of the note and the acoustics of sound production. Here, I first examine the acoustical underpinnings of the classical Greek writings on the subject and the impact they had on how the musical note was conceptualized. I then demonstrate that scholars of the medieval Islamic world approached their received wisdom with a skeptical eye and occasionally disagreed with their intellectual masters. These disagreements resulted in illuminating conversations about the nature of a musical note, how it should be differentiated from mere sound, and what role do acoustics of sound production play in these discussions.

This chapter outlines a novel, rigorous method for studying literary recordings, which can support a paradigm shift in the study of literature as performance. The method incorporates leading-edge, open-source digital tools for analyzing speech patterns in recordings, and an ethically grounded approach to analysis, with attention to the neuroscience of speech perception, implicit bias in listening, and relevant theories of sound studies and voice studies. It also includes an overview of our own work on poetry recordings and of related developments in digital voice studies, and speculates about future directions for this research.

This chapter addresses word stress patterns in Slavic languages. The discussion focuses on the placement of stress and the nature of the accent. Fixed stress systems are discussed (initial, antepenultimate, penultimate) as well as systems with free stress. The chapter also discusses the movement of the stress within inflectional patterns. The discussion furthermore includes the nature of the stress in various Slavic languages. There is also an outline of the laws regulating the patterns of stress in Slavic languages.

Building on the discussion of suprasegmentals in Chapters 6and 7, this chapter introduces the concept of intonation. The chapter begins by defining intonation both articulatorily and acoustically, with a focus on the relationship among pitch, tone, and intonation. The chapter then provides an overview of methods of analysing intonation, including acoustic analysis and theTone and Break Indices (ToBI) System. The chapter next examines intonational systems in different varieties of English by first describing GAmE and SSBE sentence intonation and pitch accent patterns, to provide a framework through which to examine other varieties. The intonation and pitch accent patterns from different varieties is then discussed, as is the pitch range of different varieties. The chapter then examines two global phenomena in detail – High Rising Terminal on declarative statements, or uptalk; and creaky voice, also commonly called vocal fry. The chapter ends with exercises to check your understanding of the content of the chapter, as well as to expand your knowledge through an analysis of the intonation and pitch accent patterns in your own variety of English.

This chapter will introduce you to the concepts of stress and rhythm in relation to languages and to varieties of English. The chapter begins by defining stress both acoustically and articulatorily, and then examining stress across varieties. This is examined first at the level of the syllable through a focus on strong vs weak syllables in English, and the relationship between strong/weak syllables and stress. The discussion then focuses on the concept of word stress in varieties of English, after which rhythm and pitch accent are introduced, through an examination of stress- and syllable-timing, in different languages as well as varieties of English. This discussion will also present information about the function of stress and pitch accent in various substrate languages for different varieties - such as Cantonese, Malay, Filipino, Spanish, among others - to help you understand the different stress and rhythm patterns that exist across varieties. In the final section of the chapter, you will be guided through exercises designed to check your understanding of the content of the chapter.

Suprasegmentals are phonetic elements that are not restricted to individual segments, but whose influence extends across a number of segments. What is phonetically the same type of suprasegmental may play a role at a very different place in the grammatical structure of a given language. One type is prominence, involving extra loudness and duration of the segments that are affected. In English, prominence is primarily grammatical stress playing a role in word pronunciation, but also emphasis, playing a role in the structure of a phrase or sentence. In English, an unstressed syllable contains a reduced vowel, normally realized as schwa. Another type of suprasegment involves variation in fundamental frequency. If this occurs at the level of the word (especially where words are restricted to a single syllable), the phenomenon is tone. Where F0 variation plays a role in the grammatical structure of the phrase or sentence, the phenomenon is intonation. Articulatory set (setting) is considered as a suprasegmental.

In the early 18th century, around 15,000 people fled southwestern Germany for the British Isles with the hopes that Queen Anne would send them to North America. Once they reached England, they established refugee camps near the Thames in and around London, raising fears of disease, competition of refugee artisans with locals, and other issues. Feeling the pressure, Queen Anne supported three resettlement schemes: one to shore up the Protestant presence in Ireland and two to produce naval stores (tar, pitch, turpentine, etc.) in North Carolina and New York. Naval stores were strategic materials used for shipbuilding and consequently European expansion around the world, yet their production involved onerous work in pine forests. The British, having denuded most of their forests for fuel and building materials, were dependent on Scandinavian sources for them. Although the two resettlement schemes targeting North America failed, they constituted early experiments with deploying immigrant labor for difficult, dangerous tasks in the New World.

Chapter 4 addresses a range of legal mechanisms by which IP licenses are implied either in fact or in law, notwithstanding the requirements of the Statute of Frauds. Specific cases cover pitches and idea submissions in industries such as toy design and creative works (Nadel v. Play by Play and Wrench v. Taco Bell), commissioned works (IAE v. Shaver), and implied licenses arising from conduct (McCoy v. Mitsuboshi Cutlery).

As Geography teachers, it is necessary to show students what it is that makes geography distinctive, relevant and therefore powerful. The distinctiveness and relevance of a subject is shown through both content and pedagogy – pedagogical content knowledge, powerful knowledge, powerful pedagogy – bringing content knowledge to life for students through the way the subject is taught. Imagine a geography lesson without fieldwork, or without the use of geographical tools such as maps and visual representations, or without the interpretation of information through the lens of place-based analysis, spatial reasoning and human-environment interconnections. The chapter explores the ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of developing distinctive and powerful geography lessons through posing an overarching question for reflection: ‘What makes your geography lesson geographical?’ Throughout the chapter, the reader is challenged to reflect on and consider how they can continue to identify, maintain and build their pedagogical practice.

This chapter provides an introduction to the acoustic and perceptual measurement of vowels. The measurable acoustic properties of vowels are formants, duration, pitch and intensity. Perceptual measurements include identification and discrimination of natural or synthesised vowels. After a brief review of the historical representation of the vowel space, technical details are given on measuring the acoustic properties of vowels, including perceptual measurements and speaker normalisation. This last plays a pivotal role in vowel space comparison among various language and gender groups. A few normalisation methods, along with the transformation of acoustic formant frequency values into auditory scales, are reviewed to provide a foundation for a cross-linguistic and curvilinear comparison of vowels. In addition, we describe competing models and theories and discuss correlations between vowel height and pitch, followed by practical scenarios and future studies on these measurements using software and internet resources.

Pitch, the subjective impression of whether individual speech sounds are perceived as relatively high or low, is an important characteristic of spoken language, contributing in some languages to the lexical identity of words and in all languages to the perception of the intonation pattern of utterances. Pitch corresponds to the physiological parameter of the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, the fundamental frequency, which can be measured in cycles per second or hertz.Estimating and measuring fundamental frequency and modelling pitch is not easy. After presenting some automatic models of pitch, we address issues related to the detection and measurement of fundamental frequency, including tracking/detection errors, and explain how many of these errors can be avoided by the appropriate choice of pitch ceiling and floor settings. We finally discuss the use of acoustic scales (linear, logarithmic, psychoacoustic) for the measurement of pitch. Based on evidence from recent findings in neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, behavioural studies and speech production, we suggest that a new scale, the Octave-Median (OMe) scale, appears to be more natural for the study of speech prosody.

This chapter investigates perceived speaker style, reporting results from a matched-guise experiment examining the effect of pitch on perceived talker characteristics. The experiment, conducted in Hawai?i, uses an ethnically diverse talker and participant sample. Two types of analyses were conducted: one used quantitative analysis and broad social categories and the other used tag clouds, where font size represents token frequency, and comparisons across the tag clouds were made qualitatively. The results demonstrate a nuanced relationship between pitch and perceived social characteristics, where the effect of pitch differs depending on what other characteristics are attributed to the speaker. Results also provide evidence that the perceived size of the talker can shift in ways that are counter to widely held beliefs about the link between pitch and perceived size. The results from this study demonstrate that researchers investigating the effect of linguistic variation on perceived social information should examine a range of perceived traits (as well as interactions between those traits) and should include voices and participants from demographic groups that are underrepresented in the literature.

The term paralinguistics (from ‘alongside language’ in ancient Greek) describes sounds that carry meaning, but that are not part of the language system. Such sounds convey information to other speakers, but they are not always clear, leaving one with a sense of ‘it wasn’t what they said, but how they said it.’ To interpret the speaker’s tone, participants often rely on the context of the interaction. This chapter explores research on paralinguistic features in four categories: voice quality, prosody, conversational management, and accent. The discussion includes how affect is expressed in electronic communication. Afterwards, these concepts are connected to an intercultural communication-oriented pedagogy, with sample language teaching activities.

Chapter 5 analyses the body-decoration inference about Neanderthal language. This inference includes the following three inferential steps, depicted by the arrows: Blocks of manganese dioxide yielding black pigment were associated with Neanderthal ocupants of sites S1,…,Sn → This pigment was used by these Neanderthals to decorate their bodies → These body decorations had a symbolic function for these Neanderthals → These Neanderthals had language. [Sites S1,…,Sn include Pech d l'Aze I and Pech de l'Aze IV in southern France.] Chapter 5 goes into doubts about the first inferential step of this inference. The main one is that it has not been excluded that the Neanderthals concerned used black pigment for an utilitarian instead of a symbolic function. Black pigment is known to have been used ethnographically and prehistorically for many utilitarian functions. And, importantly, there is experimental evidence that the Neanderthals at Pech de l'Aze I used manganese dioxide for fire-making. Until seccessfully challenged, this finding represents a good reason for doubting the soundness of the second inferential step. This leaves the second and third inferential steps ungrounded.

Chapter 6 considers wind turbine control, including supervisory control, power limiting, starting and stopping, electrical power quality, and sector management. The importance of accurate yaw control is discussed in terms of energy capture and cyclic loading, and an active yaw system is illustrated. The main focus of the chapter is real-time power control, and the chapter builds on the aerodynamic and electrical concepts covered previously in Chapters 3–5. The differences between stall and pitch regulation are explained, in the latter case in the context of both constant and variable-speed operation. Power measurements from constant-speed and variable-speed pitch controlled machines illustrate the superior accuracy of the latter. Control block diagrams are given for both methods, with qualitative explanation of the principles. The procedure for starting and stopping different wind turbine types is explained, and the advantages of pitch control in this context are illustrated. The chapter includes a short description of sector management, a control strategy based on external factors such as wind speed and direction, and used for noise reduction, shadow flicker prevention, or fatigue mitigation.

Chapter 4 extends the aerodynamic discussions of the preceding chapter to show how the rotor net loads (power, thrust, and torque) are developed. The dimensionless power coefficient (Cp) curve is introduced, and the relationship between rotor tip speed ratio and optimum solidity is explained. The variation of thrust loading with wind speed on an ideal pitch-controlled rotor is explained from simple theory and illustrated with measurements from a full-scale wind turbine. Equations governing the chord and twist distributions for an optimised blade are given and discussed in the context of some historic blade types, with illustrations. Rotor aerodynamic control is explained with reference to fixed-pitch stall regulation and variable blade pitch in both positive and negative senses. The influence of blade number is examined, with discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of one-, two-, and three-bladed wind turbines. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of alternative aerodynamic control devices, including tip vanes and ailerons, and the downwind rotor configuration (with examples).

In this chapter we situate music education as ‘praxis’ (Alperson, 1991; Elliott, 1995; Regelski, 1998), encouraging personal agency and allowing children to become composers, performers and audiences as part of their daily lives. The importance of this approach is that musical learning and musical understanding occur in many ways: through listening, sharing, discussing, reflecting, performing, composing and recording. All of these processes should be conceived of culturally, socially and holistically in ways that enable children to explore connections between concepts, skills and understandings. In this approach, a music learning community of practice (Wenger, 2009) that encourages learning in multiple ways through learner agency can be established in your classroom.