Magnetic active regions on the Sun are harbingers of space weather. Understanding the physics of how they form and evolve will improve space weather forecasting. Our aim is to characterise the surface magnetic field and flows for a sample of active regions with persistent magnetic bipoles prior to emergence. We identified 42 emerging active regions (EARs), in the Solar Dynamics Observatory Helioseismic Emerging Active Region survey (Schunker et al. 2016, A&A. 595, A107), associated with small magnetic bipoles at least one day before the time of emergence. We then identified a contrasting sample of 42 EARs that emerge more abruptly without bipoles before emergence. We computed the supergranulation-scale surface flows using helioseismic holography. We averaged the flow maps and magnetic field maps over all active regions in each sample at each time interval from 2 d before emergence to 1 d after. We found that EARs associated with a persistent pre-emergence bipole evolve to be, on average, lower flux active regions than EARs that emerge more abruptly. Further, we found that the EARs that emerge more abruptly do so with a diverging flow of $(3\pm 0.6) \times 10^{-6}$ s$^{-1}$ on the order of 50–100 ms$^{-1}$. Our results show that there is a statistical dependence of the surface flow signature throughout the emergence process on the maximum magnetic flux of the active region.

In the late 80s of the 20th century, Crimean astronomers, studying the structure of transverse magnetic fields in active regions (ARs), discovered signs of the presence of large-scale vertical electric currents – global electric currents (Abramenko, Gopasyuk 1987). In 2018–2020, we finalized and adapted the method for detecting large-scale electric currents to the data of modern instruments for studying the Sun, and began studying their dynamics on time scales of 3–5 days (Fursyak et. al 2020). Our researches carried out during 2020–2023 showed that: 1) Large-scale electric currents with values of the order of ~ 1013 A exist in ARs with nonzero flare activity. 2) Large-scale electric currents extend to the upper layers of the solar atmosphere in one part of the AR, and close through the chromosphere and corona in the remaining part of the AR. This assumption for the AR NOAA 12192 is confirmed by the results of numerical simulations performed in 2016 (Jiang et al. 2016). 3) The greater the magnitude of the large-scale electric current, the higher the probability of occurrence of M- and X- class solar flares in the AR. 4) At the final stages of AR evolution, a nonzero large-scale electric current can have a stabilizing effect on the sunspot, preventing its decay by its own magnetic field. 5) Large-scale electric currents are involved in coronal heating processes. Ohmic dissipation of a large-scale electric current is one of the mechanisms of quasi-stationary heating of coronal plasma above the AR. Our research on large-scale electric currents and the processes in which they take part continues.

Coronal rain is formed in the post-impulsive phase of solar flares due to the thermal instability of coronal plasma in EUV loops. As a result, the sub-terahertz (sub-THz) emission flux in the post-impulsive phase of solar flares can be increased due to the increasing of the optical thickness of the thermal source. This suggests that sub-THz observations can be used as a diagnostic tool for coronal rain.

This work is aimed to analyse the relationship between the sub-THz radiation and variations of the temperature and the emission measure of the EUV coronal plasma during the post-impulsive phase of the SOL2022-05-04T08:45 solar flare.

Based on the two-dimensional temperature and emission measure distributions obtained from the AIA/SDO EUV intensity data, it was found that the temperature decreases whereas the emission measure reaches the maximum near the sub-THz flare peak. This circumstance and peculiarities of the radiation time profiles in different wave ranges show evidence in favor of the significant contribution of the thermal coronal loop plasma to the flare sub-THz radiation at least for some flare events. The sub-THz emission may be associated with a coronal condensation, accompanied by the formation of coronal rain.

The tilt of the bipolar magnetic region (BMR) is crucial in the Babcock-Leighton process for the generation of the poloidal magnetic field in the Sun. We extend the work of Jha et al. (2020) and analyze the recently reported tracked BMR catalogue based on AutoTAB (Sreedevi et al. 2023) from Michelson Doppler Imager (1996–2011) and Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (2010–2018). Using the tracked information of BMRs based on AutoTAB, we confirm that the distribution of Bmax reported by Jha et al. (2020) is not because of the BMRs are picked multiple times at the different phases of their evolution instead it is also present if we consider each BMRs only once. Moreover, we find that the slope of Joy’s law (〈γ0〉) initially increases slowly with the increase of Bmax. However, when Bmax >2.5 kG, γ0 decreases. The decrease of observed γ0 with Bmax provides a hint to a nonlinear tilt quenching in the Babcock-Leighton process.

This note identifies a new acrostic in Christodorus’ sixth century c.e. Ekphrasis of the Baths of Zeuxippus (Anth. Pal. 2) and explains its significance.

We suggest an advanced algorithm for semi-analytical calculation of orbital perturbations of Earth artificial satellites caused by the gravity attraction of the “3rd-bodies” (the Moon, the Sun, major planets). A new accurate analytical series for the relevant perturbation function is developed. It is obtained through a careful spectral analysis of the long-term DE406 planetary/lunar ephemerides and valid over 2000 years, 1000-3000. The series is used in the author’s semi-analytical model of satellite motion. The results of the motion prediction of several Earth satellites obtained by means of the semi-analytical model and a numerical integration method are compared.

The short timescale of the solar flare reconnection process has long proved to be a puzzle. Recent studies suggest the importance of the formation of plasmoids in the reconnecting current sheet, with quantifying the aspect ratio of the width to length of the current sheet in terms of a negative power $ \alpha $ of the Lundquist number, that is, $ {S}^{-\alpha } $ , being key to understanding the onset of plasmoids formation. In this paper, we make the first application of theoretical scalings for this aspect ratio to observed flares to evaluate how plasmoid formation may connect with observations. For three different flares that show plasmoids we find a range of $ \alpha $ values of $ \alpha =0.26 $ to $ 0.31 $ . The values in this small range implies that plasmoids may be forming before the theoretically predicted critical aspect ratio ( $ \alpha =1/3 $ ) has been reached, potentially presenting a challenge for the theoretical models.

Mars lacks a substantial magnetic field; as a result, the solar wind ablates the Martian atmosphere, and cosmic rays from solar flares make the surface uninhabitable. Therefore, any terraforming attempt will require an artificial Martian magnetic shield. The fundamental challenge of building an artificial magnetosphere is to condense planetary-scale currents and magnetic fields down to the smallest mass possible. Superconducting electromagnets offer a way to do this. However, the underlying physics of superconductors and electromagnets limits this concentration. Based upon these fundamental limitations, we show that the amount of superconducting material is proportional to $B_{\rm c}^{-2}a^{-3}$, where Bc is the critical magnetic field for the superconductor and a is the loop radius of a solenoid. Since Bc is set by fundamental physics, the only truly adjustable parameter for the design is the loop radius; a larger loop radius minimizes the amount of superconducting material required. This non-intuitive result means that the ‘intuitive’ strategy of building a compact electromagnet and placing it between Mars and the Sun at the first Lagrange point is unfeasible. Considering reasonable limits on Bc, the smallest possible loop radius is ~10 km, and the magnetic shield would have a mass of ~ 1019 g. Most high-temperature superconductors are constructed of rare elements; given solar system abundances, building a superconductor with ~ 1019 g would require mining a solar system body with several times 1025 g; this is approximately 10% of Mars. We find that the most feasible design is to encircle Mars with a superconducting wire with a loop radius of ~3400 km. The resulting wire diameter can be as small as ~5 cm. With this design, the magnetic shield would have a mass of ~ 1012 g and would require mining ~ 1018 g, or only 0.1% of Olympus Mons.

Several models of the solar luminosity, , in the evolutionary timescale, have been computed as a function of time. However, the solar mass-loss, , is one of the drivers of variation in this timescale. The purpose of this study is to model mass-loss varying solar luminosity, , and to predict the luminosity variation before it leaves the main sequence. We numerically computed the up to 4.9 Gyrs from now. We used the solution to compute the modeled . We then validated our model with the current solar standard model (SSM). The shows consistency up to 8 Gyrs. At about 8.85 Gyrs, the Sun loses 28% of its mass and its luminosity increased to 2.2. The model suggests that the total main sequence lifetime is nearly 9 Gyrs. The model explains well the stage at which the Sun exhausts its central supply of hydrogen and when it will be ready to leave the main sequence. It may also explain the fate of the Sun by making some improvements in comparison to previous models.

The search for life in the Universe is a fundamental problem of astrobiology and modern science. The current progress in the detection of terrestrial-type exoplanets has opened a new avenue in the characterization of exoplanetary atmospheres and in the search for biosignatures of life with the upcoming ground-based and space missions. To specify the conditions favourable for the origin, development and sustainment of life as we know it in other worlds, we need to understand the nature of global (astrospheric), and local (atmospheric and surface) environments of exoplanets in the habitable zones (HZs) around G-K-M dwarf stars including our young Sun. Global environment is formed by propagated disturbances from the planet-hosting stars in the form of stellar flares, coronal mass ejections, energetic particles and winds collectively known as astrospheric space weather. Its characterization will help in understanding how an exoplanetary ecosystem interacts with its host star, as well as in the specification of the physical, chemical and biochemical conditions that can create favourable and/or detrimental conditions for planetary climate and habitability along with evolution of planetary internal dynamics over geological timescales. A key linkage of (astro)physical, chemical and geological processes can only be understood in the framework of interdisciplinary studies with the incorporation of progress in heliophysics, astrophysics, planetary and Earth sciences. The assessment of the impacts of host stars on the climate and habitability of terrestrial (exo)planets will significantly expand the current definition of the HZ to the biogenic zone and provide new observational strategies for searching for signatures of life. The major goal of this paper is to describe and discuss the current status and recent progress in this interdisciplinary field in light of presentations and discussions during the NASA Nexus for Exoplanetary System Science funded workshop ‘Exoplanetary Space Weather, Climate and Habitability’ and to provide a new roadmap for the future development of the emerging field of exoplanetary science and astrobiology.

Based on our modern 4D-var data assimilation pipeline Solar Predict we present in this short proceeding paper our prediction for the next solar cycle 25. As requested by the Solar Cycle 25 panel call issued on January 2019 by NOAA/SWPC and NASA, we predict the timing of next minimum and maximum as well as their amplitude. Our results are the following: the minimum should have occured within the first semester of year 2019. The maximum should occur in year 2024.4 ± 6 months, with a value of the sunspot number equal to 92±10. This is in agreement with the NOAA/NASA consensus published in April 2019. Note that our prediction errors are based on 1-σ measure and do not consider all the systematics, so they are likely underestimated. We will update our prediction and error analysis regularly as more data becomes available and we improve our prediction pipeline.