Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-zlgnt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T05:50:01.196Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Samuel David Epstein ,
Suzanne Flynn  and
Gita Martohardjono
Samuel David Epstein
Affiliation:
Linguistics Department, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 Electronic mail: epstein@fas.harvard.edu
Suzanne Flynn
Affiliation:
Foreign Languages and Literatures, Linguistics and Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 Electronic mail: sflynn@MIT.edu
Gita Martohardjono
Affiliation:
Department of Linguistics, Queens College/CUNY, Flushing, NY 11367
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To what extent, if any, does Universal Grammar (UG) constrain second language (L2) acquisition? This is not only an empirical question, but one which is currently investigable. In this context, L2 acquisition is emerging as an important new domain of psycholinguistic research. Three logical possibilities have been articulated regarding the role of UG in L2 acquisition: The first is the “no access” hypothesis that claims that no aspect of UG is available to the L2 learner. The second is the “partial access” hypothesis that claims that only LI instantiated principles and LI instantiated parameter-values of UG are available to the learner. The third, called the “full access” hypothesis, asserts that UG in its entirety constrains L2 acquisition.

In this paper we argue that there is no compelling evidence to support either of the first two hypotheses. Moreover, we provide evidence concerning functional categories in L2 acquisition consistent with the claim that UG is fully available to the L2 learner (see also Flynn 1987; Li 1993; Martohardjono 1992; Schwartz & Sprouse 1991; Thomas 1991; White 1989). In addition, we will attempt to clarify some of currently unclear theoretical issues that arise with respect to positing UG as an explanatory theory of L2 acquisition. We will also investigate in some detail certain crucial methodological questions involved in experimentally testing the role of UG in L2 acquisition and finally, we will present a set of experimental results of our own supporting the “Full Access” hypothesis.

Keywords

competence vs. performancecritical periodsfunctional categoriesinnatenesslanguage acquisitionmorphologyparameter settingproblem solvingpsycholinguisticssecond language learningstagesuniversal grammar

Information

Type
Target Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 19 , Issue 4 , December 1996 , pp. 677 - 714
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abney, S. (1987) The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect. Doctoral dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Andersen, R., ed. (1983a) Pidginization and creolization as language acquisition. Newbury House. [MD]Google Scholar
Andersen, R. (1983b) Introduction: A language acquisition interpretation of pidginization and creolization. In: Pidginization and creolization as language acquisition, ed. Andersen, R.. Newbury House. [MD]Google Scholar
Anderson, S. (1993) Wackemagel's revenge. Language 69:68–98. [WOC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, J. (1995) The acquisition of English stress by speakers of nonaccentual languages: Lexical storage versus computation of stress. Unpublished manuscript, University of Calgary. [JA]Google Scholar
Atkinson, M. (1992) Children's syntax: An introduction to principles and parameters theory. Blackwell. [aSDE, BDS]Google Scholar
Bailey, N., Madden, C. & Krashen, S. (1974) Is there a “natural sequence” in adult second language learning? Language Learning 24:235–43. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, C. L. (1991) The syntax of English not. Linguistic Inquiry 22:387–429. [WOC]Google Scholar
Baker, P. & Corne, C. (1982) Isle de France Creole: Affinities and origins. Karoma. [MD]Google Scholar
Baltin, M. R. (1982) A landing site theory of movement rules. Linguistic Inquiry 13:1–38. [KK]Google Scholar
Bard, E. G., Robertson, D. & Sorace, A. (1996) Magnitude estimation of linguistic acceptability. Language 72:32–68. [AS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, E., Thal, D. & Janowsky, J. (1992) Early language development and its neural correlates. In: Handbook of neuropsychology, vol. 7: Child neuropsychology, ed. Rapin, I. & Segalowitz, S.. Elsevier. [PL]Google Scholar
Bauer, R. H. (1993) Lateralization of neural control for vocalization by the frog (flana pipiens). Psychobiology 21:243–48. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beretta, A. (1991) Theory construction in SLA: Complementarity and opposition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13:493–511. [DBir]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertolo, S. (1995) Maturation and learnability in parametric systems. Language Acquisition 4:277–318. [SEC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berwick, R. (1985) The acquisition of syntactic knowledge. MIT Press. [SEC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berwick, R. C. & S., Weinberg. A. (1984) The grammatical basis of linguistic performance. MIT Press. [SEC]Google Scholar
R., Bhatt. & Hancin-Bhatt, B. (1996) Phrase structure acquistion and the status of CP in early adult syntax. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, University of Arizona, 10 21–24, 1996. [RMB]Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K. (1994) In other words. Basic Books. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Bickerton, D. (1977) Pidginization and creolization: Language acquisition and language universals. In: Pidgin and Creole linguistics, ed. Valdman, A.. Indiana University Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Bickerton, D. (1984) The language biprograin hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7:173–221. [DBic, MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, D. (1988) Relexification. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3(2):277–82. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birdsong, D. (1989) Metalinguistic performance and interlinguistic competence.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birdsong, D. (1992) Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language 68:706–55. [MHar]Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (1989) What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In: Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition, ed. Schachter, J. & Cass, S.. Cambridge University Press. [aSDE, GC, KRG]Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (1990) The logical problem of foreign language learning. Linguistic Analysis 20:3–49. [DBir, RB-V, LE]Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. & Chaudron, C. (1990) Second language processing of subordinate clauses and anaphora – First language and universal influences. language Learning 40:245–85. [RB-V, LE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohn, O.-S. & Flege, J. E. (1992) The production of new and similar vowels by adult German learners of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 14(2):131–58. [HB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borer, H. (1983) Parameterized syntax. Foris. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Borer, H. (1996) The construct in review. In: Studies in Afroasiatic grammar, ed. Lecarme, J., Lowenstamm, J. & Shlonsky, U.. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics. [JA]Google Scholar
Borer, H. & Wexler, K. (1987) The maturation of syntax. In: Parameter setting, ed. Roeper, T. & Williams, E.. Reidel. [HB]Google Scholar
Boser, K., Lust, B., Santelman, L. & Whitman, J. (1991a) The syntax of CP and V-2 in early child German (ECG): The strong continuity hypothesis. In: Proceedings of N ELS 22. GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Ainherst. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Boser, K., Lust, B., Santelman, L. & Whitman, J. (1991b) The theoretical significance of auxiliaries in early child German grammar (ECG). Paper presented at the 19th Boston University Conference on Language Development, 10, 1991. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Breva-Clanunonte, M. (1977) Sanctiuss antecedents: The beginnings of transformational grammar: parts 1 and 2. Language Sciences 44:10–18; 45:6–20. [MT]Google Scholar
Broselow, E. & Finer, D. (1991) Parameter setting in second language phonology and syntax. Second Language Research 7(1):35–60. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Carr, T. H., & Curran, T. (1994) Cognitive factors in learning about structured sequences: Applications to syntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16:205–30. [RB-V]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, S. (1989) Second language acquisition and the computational metaphor. Language Learning 39(4):535–94. [JA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaudenson, R. (1990) Recherche, formation et linguistique. Revue Quebecoise de Linguistique Theorique et Apptiquee 9(3):287–303. [MD]Google Scholar
Chomsky, C. (1969) The acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1955) The logical structure of linguistic theory. Manuscript, Harvard University (revised 1956; portions published by Plenum Press, 1975, and by University of Chicago Press, 1985). [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1959) Review of Skinners Verbal behavior (1957). Language 35:26–58. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1964a) Current issues in Linguistic theory. Mouton. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1964b) Formal discussion. In: Acquisition of language, ed. Bellugi, U. & Brown, R.. Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development 29:35–39. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1964c) Current issues in linguistic theory. In: The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy of language, ed. Fodor, J. A. & Katz, J. J.. Prentice Hall. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1966) Cartesian linguistics. Harper & Row. [CPO, MT]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1968) Language and mind. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1975) Reflections on language. Pantheon Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1980) Rules and representations. Columbia University Press. [aSDE, KRG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1981a) Lectures on government and binding. Foris. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1981b) Principles and parameters in syntactic theory. In: Explanation in linguistics: The logical problem of language acquisition, ed. Homstein, N. & Lightfoot, D.. Longman. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1982) Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin, and use. Praeger. [arSDE, FJM, RAS]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1988) Language and problems of knowledge: The Managua lectures. MIT Press. [aSDE, CPO]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1989) Language and mind. The Darwin Lecture, Darwin College, Cambridge, 01, 1989. [CPO]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1991a) Linguistics and adjacent fields: A personal view. In: The Chomskyan turn, ed. Kasher, A.. Blackwell. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1991b) Linguistics and cognitive science: Problems and mysteries. In: The Chomskyan turn, ed. Kasher, A.. Blackwell. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1991c) Some notes on economy of derivation and representation. In: Principles and parameters in comparative grammar, ed. Freidin, R.. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1992) Language and interpretation: Philosophical reflections and empirical inquiry. In: Inference, explanation and other frustrations, ed. Earman, J.. University of California Press, Berkeley. [CPO]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1993) A minimalist program for linguistic theory. In: The view from building 20, ed. Hale, K. & Keyser, S. J.. MIT Press. [aSDE, RF]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1994) Bare phrase structure. In: MIT occasional papers in linguistics 5. Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, MIT. Also in: Government and binding theory and the minimalist program, ed. Webelhuth, G.. Blackwell. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1995a) The minimalist program. MIT Press. [HC, RF, CPO, ET]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1995b) Language and nature. Science Super Lecture Series. Australian Museum, Sydney, 01 23, 1995. [CPO]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. & Lasnik, H. (1993) The theory of principles and parameters. Reprinted in: Tlie minimalist program (1995), ed. N. Chomsky. MIT Press. [RE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clahsen, H. (1984) The acquisition of German word order: A test case for cognitive approaches to second language acquisition. In: Second languages, ed. Andersen, R.. Newbury House. [HC]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. (1988) Parameterized grammatical theory and language acquisition: A study of the acquisition of verb placement and inflection by children and adults. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. (1991) Constraints on parameter setting: A grammatical analysis of some acquisition stages in German child language. language Acquisition 1:361–91. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clahsen, H., Eisenbeiss, S. & Vainikka, A. (1994) The seeds of structure: A syntactic analysis of the acquisition of case marking. In: Language acquisition studies in generative grammar, ed. Hoekstra, T. & Schwartz, B. D.. Benjamins. [AV]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. & Hong, U. (1995) Agreement and null subjects in German L2 development: New evidence from reaction-time experiments. Second Language Research ll(1):57–87. [HC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clahsen, H., Kursawe, C. & Penke, M. (1995) Introducing CP: Wh-questions and subordinate clauses in German child language. Essex Research Reports in Linguistics 7:1–28. [HC]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. & Muysken, P. (1986) The availability of universal grammar to adult and child learners: A study of the acquisition of German word order. Second Language Research 2:93–119. [aSDE, AV]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. & Muysken, P. (1989) The UG paradox in L2 acquisition. Second Language Research 5:1–29. [HC, CPO]Google Scholar
Clahsen, H., Penke, M. & Parodi, T. (1993) Functional categories in early child German. Language Acquisition 3(4):395–429. [HC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R. & Roberts, I. (1993) A computational model of language learnability and language change. Linguistic Inquiry 24:299–345. [MD]Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1973) The comparison of language development in native children and foreign adults. International Review: of Applied Linguistics in language Teaching 11:13–28. [aSDE[Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1985) Chomsky's universal grammar and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics 6:2–18. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1988) Chomsky's universal grammar. Blackwell. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1995) Multicompetence and effects of age. In: The age factor in second language acquistion, ed. Singleton, D. & Lengyel, Z.. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. & Newson, M. (1996) Chomsky's universal grammar: An introduction, 2d ed. Blackwell. [CPO]Google Scholar
Cooper, R., Olshtain, E., Tucker, R. & Waterbury, M. (1979) The acquisition of complex English structures by adult native speakers of Arabic and Hebrew. Language Learning 29:255–275. [aSDE, BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppieters, R. (1987) Competence differences between native and near native speakers. Language 6(3):544–73. [HB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowper, E. (1992) A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The governmentbinding approach.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crain, S. (1992) Language acquisition in the absence of experience. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:597–650. [arSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crain, S. & Nakayama, M. (1987) Structure dependence in grammar formation. Language 63:522–43. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, W. (1995) Autonomy and functionalist linguistics. Language 71:490–532. [FJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtiss, S. (1977) Genie: A psychological study of a modern-day “wild child.” Academic Press. [DBic]Google Scholar
Curtiss, S. (1988) Abnormal language acquisition and the modularity of language. In: Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, vol. 2, ed. Newmeyer, F. J.. Cambridge University Press. [DBic]Google Scholar
Cutler, A., Mehler, J., Norris, D. & Segui, J. (1992) The monolingual nature of speech segmentaion by bilinguals. Cognitive Psychology 24:381–410. [HC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
d'Anglejan, A. & Tucker, R. (1975) The acquisition of complex English structures by adult learners. Language Learning 25:281–96. [aSDE, BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1992) Is Haitian a pro-drop language? In: Atlantic meets Pacific: A global view of pidginization and creolization, ed. Byrne, F. & Holm, J.. Benjamins. [MD]Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1993) A riddle on negation in Haitian. Probus 5:63–93. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1994a) To move or not to move? Placement of verbs and object pronouns in Haitian and in French. In: Papers from the 30th meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, ed. Beals, K.. etal Chicago Linguistics Society. [MD]Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1994b) Review of Lefebvres, C.The clausal determiners of Haitian and Fan (Travaux de recherche sur le Creole Haitien, no. 8, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, 1992). Journal of Pidgin b Creole Languages 9(2). [MD]Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1994c) Review of Lefebvres, C. (ed.) Word order and possession in relexification (Travaux de recherche sur le créole Haïtien, no. 10, Université du Québec á Montreal, 1992). Journal of Pidgin & Creole Languages 9(2). MDGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, M. (1995) On certain differences between Haitian and French predicative constructions. In: Contemporary research in romance linguistics, ed. Amastae, J., Goodall, G., Montalbetti, M. & Phinney, M.. Benjamins. [MD]Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. (in press a) Verb syntax in creolization (and beyond). In: The new comparative syntax, ed. Haegeman, L.. Longman. [MD]Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. (in press b) Creolization, language change and language acquisition, ed. DeGraff, M.. MIT Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Demuth, C. (1992) Competence or performance: What phonology shows about children's emerging syntax. Paper presented at the 20th Boston University Conference on Language Development. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Dennis, M. (1980) Capacity and strategy for syntactic comprehension after left or hight hemidecortication. Brain and Language 10(2):287–317. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M. & Kohn, B. (1975) Comprehension of syntax in infantile heiniplegics after cerebral hemidecortication: Left-hemisphere superiority. Brain and Language 2(4):472–82. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Déprez, V. & Pierce, A. (1993) Negation and functional projections in early grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 24:25–67. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Dulay, H. & Burt, M. (1974a) Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning 24:37–43. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dulay, H. (1974b) A new perspective on the creative construction process in child second language acquisition. Language Learning 24:253–78. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dulay, H., Burt, M. & Krashen, S. (1982) Language two. Oxford University Press. [BDS]Google Scholar
duPlessis, J., Solin, D., Travis, L. & White, L. (1987) UG or not UG, that is the question: A reply to Clahsen and Muysken. Second Language Learning 3:56–75. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1987) Neural Darwinism. Basic Books. [PL]Google Scholar
Eimas, P. (1975). Auditory and phonetic coding of the cues for speech: Discrimination of the [r–l] distinction by young infants. Perception & Psychophysics 18(5):341–47. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emonds, J. (1985) A unified theory of syntactic categories. Foris. [FJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emonds, J. (1986) Grammatically deviant prestige constructions. In: A Festschrift for Sol Saporta, ed. Brame, M., Contreras, H. & Newmeyer, F.. Noit Amrofer. [FJM]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (1990) Differentiation and reduction in syntactic theory: A case study. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 8:313–23. [aSDE, AS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (1992) Derivational constraints on A'-chain formation. Linguistic Inquiry 23:235–60. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (1993) Superiority. In: Harvard working papers in linguistics 3, eds. Thráinsson, H., Epstein, S. D. & Kuno, S.. Department of Linguistics, Harvard University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (1994) The derivation of syntactic relations. Paper presented to the Harvard University Forum on Synchronic Linguistic Theory. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (1995) UN-principled syntax and the derivation of syntactic relations. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D. (in press) Scope-marking and LF V2. Linguistic Inquiry. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1993a) Evidence for functional categories in Japanese child and adult learners of English as a second language. Paper presented at the 13th Second Language Research Forum, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie-Mellon University, 03, 1993. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1993b) The full access hypothesis in SLA: Some evidence for the acquisition of functional categories. Paper presented at International Association for Applied Linguistics (AILA), Amsterdam. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1993c) The strong continuity hypothesis in adult L2 acquisition of functional categories. Paper presented at Workshop on Recent Advances in Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 01, 1993. (To appear in Recent advances in generative approaches to second language acquisition: Erlbaum.) [aSDE]Google Scholar
Epstein, S. D., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1994) Contrasts and similarities in child and adult second language acquisition: Some evidence from the acquisition of functional categories. Paper presented at the Boston University Conference on Language Development, 01, 1994. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Eubank, L. (1988) Universal grammar, German grammar, and L2 development. Unpublished manuscript, University of Texas, Austin. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Eubank, L. (1993/1994) On the transfer of parametric values in L2 development. language Acquisition 3:183–208. [RMB, LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eubank, L. (1994) Optionality and the initial state in L2 development. In: language acquisition studies in generative grammar, ed. Hoekstra, T. & Schwartz, B. D.. Benjamins. [AS]Google Scholar
Eubank, L. (in press) Optionality and the “initial state” in L2 development. In: Language acquisition studies in generative grammar, eds. Hoekstra, T. & Schwartz, B.. John Benjamins. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Felix, S. (1984) Maturational aspects of universal grammar. In: Interianguagc, ed. Davies, A., Criper, C. & Howatt, A.. Edinburgh University Press. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Felix, S. (1988) UG-generated knowledge in adult second language acquisition. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Fernandez, E. (1995) Processing strategies in second language acquistion: Some preliminary results. Paper presented at GASLA 95, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 05 4–5, 1995.Google Scholar
Finer, D. (1991) The binding parameter in second language acquisition. In: Point counter point: Universal grammar in the second language, ed. Eubank, L.. Benjamins. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Finer, D. & Broselow, E. (1986) Second language acquisition of reflexive binding. Proceedings of the North Eastern Linguistic Society 16:154–68. [HB, RAS, LW]Google Scholar
Flege, J. E. (1987) Effects of equivalence classification on the production of foreign language speech sounds. In: Sound patterns in second language acquisition, ed. James, A. & Leather, A.. Foris. [SEC]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1983) A study of the effects of principal branching direction in second language acquisition: The generalization of a parameter of universal grammar from first to second language acquisition. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. [arSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1984) A universal in L2 acquisition based on a PBD typology. In: Universals of second language acquisition, ed. Eckinan, F., Bell, L. & Nelson, D.. Newbury House. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1987) A parameter-setting model of U2 acquisition. Reidel. [arSDE, MD, LE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, S. (1991) Government-binding: Parameter setting in second language acquisition. In: Crosscurrents in second language acquisition and linguistic theories, ed. Ferguson, C. & Huehner, T.. John Benjamins. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1993) Interactions between L2 acquisition and linguistic theory. In: Confluence: Linguistics, L2 acquisition and speech pathology, ed. Eckman, F.. Benjamins. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. (1995) The LI is not the problem. Second Language Research Forum Plenary, Cornell University, 10, 1995. [rSDE, LE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & Espinal, I. (1985) Head/initial head/final parameter in adult Chinese L2 acquisition of English. Second Language Acquisition Research 1:93–117. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S., Foley, C. & Lardiere, D. (1991) The minimality principle in adult second language acquisition. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, University of Southern California, 01, 1991. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & Lust, B. (1990) A note in defense of parameter setting in L2 acquisition: A response to Bley-Vroman and Chaudron. language Learning 40:419–449. [aSDE, LE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, S. & Manuel, S. (1991) Age dependent effects in language acquisition: An evaluation of ‘critical period’ hypotheses. In: Point/counterjurint: Universal grammar in second language, ed. Eubank, L.. Benjamins. [arSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1991) How critical is age in adult second language acquisition? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1992) Mapping from the initial state to the final state: The separation of universal principles and language-specific properties. Paper presented at the Conference on Syntactic Theory and First Language Acquisition: Crosslinguistic Perspectives, Cornell University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1994) Mapping from the initial state to the final state: The separation of universal principles and language specific properties. In: Syntactic theory and first language acquisition: Crosslinguistic perspectives: vol. 1. Phrase structure, ed. Lust, B., Whitman, J. & Kornfilt, J.. Erlbaum. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S., Martohardjono, G. & O'Neil, W. (in press) The generative study of second language acquisition. Erlbaum. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1985a) Introduction. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1988b) Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Kluwer. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1994) Adult next-language acquisition and the theory of grammar. In: Noam Chomsky: Critical assessments, ed. Otero, C. P.. Routledge. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Freidin, R. (1992a) Foundations of generative syntax. MIT Press. [aSDE, RF]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1992b) Linguistic theory and language acquisition: A note on structuredcpeiulence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:618–19. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1994a) Generative grammar: Principles and parameters framework. In: The encyclopedia of language and linguistics, vol. 3, ed. Asher, R. E.. Pergainon Press. [RF]Google Scholar
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1994b) Conceptual shifts in the science of grammar: 1951–1992. In: Noam Chomsky: Critical assessments, vol. 1, ed. Otero, C. P.. Routledge. [RF]Google Scholar
Freidin, R. & Quicoli, A. C. (1989) Zero stimulation for parameter setting. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(2):338–39. [RF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukudn, M. (1993) Head government and ease marker drop in Japanese. Linguistic Inquiry 15:531–74. [KK]Google Scholar
Fukui, N. (1988) Deriving the differences between English and Japanese: A case study in parametric syntax. English Linguistics 5:249–70. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukui, N. (1993) Parameters and optionality. Linguistic Inquiry 24:399–420. [GO. AS]Google Scholar
Garman, M. (1990) Psycholinguistics. Cambridge. [LE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gass, S. (1993) Second language acquisition: Past, present, and future. Second Language Research 9:99–117. [MT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gass, S. & Selinker, L., eds. (1992) Language transfer in language learning. Benjamins. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerbault, J. (1978) The acquisition of English by a five-year-old French speaker. Thesis, University of Califoirnia, Los Angeles. [LE]Google Scholar
Gibson, T. & Wexler, K., (1994) Triggers. Linguistic Inquiry 25:407–54. [SEC, MD, rSDE]Google Scholar
Goldin-Meadow, S. (1979) Structure in a manual communication system developed without a conventional language model: Language without a helping hand. In: Studies in neurolinguistics, vol 4, ed. Whitaker, H. & II.Whitaker, A.. Academic Press. [DBic]Google Scholar
Goodluck, H., & Tavakolian, S. (1982) Competence and processing in children's grammar of relative clauses. Cognition 11:1–27. [rSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregg, K. R. (1994) The logical and developmental problems of second language acquisition. In: Handbook of language acquisition, vol. 2, ed. Ritchie, W. C. & Bhutia, T.. Academic Press. [SEC, KRC]Google Scholar
Grewendorf, C. & Sabel, J. (1996) Multiple specifiers versus adjunction: A parametrized account of A/A'-asymmetries in free word order languages. Sprachwissenschaft in Frankfurt. [GG]Google Scholar
Grimshaw, J. & Pinker, S. (1989) Positive and negative evidence in language acquistion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(2):341. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimshaw, J. & Rosen, S. T. (1990) Knowledge and obedience: The developmental status of the binding theory. Linguistic Inquiry 21:187–222. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Guilfoyle, E. & Noonan, M. (1992) Functional categories and language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 37:241–72. [JA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haegeman, L. (1991) Introduction to government and binding theory. Blackwell. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Hale, K. (1988) Linguistic theory. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [RMB]Google Scholar
Hale, M. (1995) Theory and method in historical linguistics. Unpublished manuscript, Coneordia University. [aSDE, MHal]Google Scholar
Hamburger, H. & Crain, S. (1982) Relative acquisition. In: Language development (Syntax and semantics I), ed. , S. Kuczaj II. Academic Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Hata, Y. & Stryker, M. P. (1994) Control of the thalamocortical afferent rearrangement by postsynaptic activity in developing visual cortex. Science 263:1732–35. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, J. A. (1996) Movement out of clauses in English and German. Colloquium to the Institute for English and American Studies, Universitaet Potsdam, 02 6, 1996. [SEC]Google Scholar
Hawkins, R., Towell, R. & Bazergui, N. (1993) Universal grammar and the acquisition of French verb movement by native speakers of English. Second Language Research 9:189–233. [BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haznedar, B. (1995) Acquisition of English by a Turkish child: On the development of VP and negation. Paper presented at the Language Acquisition Research Symposium, Universiteit Utrecht. [BDS]Google Scholar
Hilles, S. (1986) Interlanguage and the pro-drop parameter. Second Language Research 2:33–52. [MASS, LW]Google Scholar
Hirakawa, M. (1990) A study of the L2 acquisition of English reflexives. Second Language Research 6:60–85. [LW]Google Scholar
Hornstein, N. & Lightfoot, D., (1981) Explanation in linguistics: The logical problem of language acquisition. Longman. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Horrocks, G. (1987) Generative grammar. Longman. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Huang, C.-T. J. (1982) Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Horrocks, G. (1995) Logical form. In: Government and binding theory and the minimalist program, ed. Webelhuth, G.. Blackwell. [RF]Google Scholar
Hulk, A. (1991) Parameter setting the acquisition of word order in L2 French. Second Language Research 7: 1–34. [BDS]Google Scholar
Huybregts, R. & Riemsdijk, H. van (1982) Noam Chomsky on the generative enterprise: A discussion with Riny Huybregts and Henk van Riemsdijk. Foris. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Hyams, N. (1986) Language acquisition and the theory of parameters. Reidel. [KK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyams, N. & Safir, K. (1991) Evidence, analogy, and passive knowledge: Comments on Lakshmanan. In: Point/counterpoint, ed. Eubank, L.. Benjamins. [arSDE]Google Scholar
Iatridou, S. (1990.) About Agr(P). Linguistic Inquiry 21: 551–77. [WOG]Google Scholar
Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., El Tigi, M., fit Moselle, M. (1994) Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of sucessful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second language Acquisition 16: 73–98. [CPO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackendoff, R. (1994) Patterns in the mind: Language and human nature. Basic Books. [PL]Google Scholar
Jaeggli, O., fit Safir, K. (1989) Introduction. In: The null subject parameter, ed. Jaeggli, O. & Safir, K.. Reidel. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakobson, R. (1941) Kindersprache, aphasie und allgemeine lautgesetze. In: Selected writings, vol. 1. (English translation by Keiler, A., 1968). Mouton. [MHal]Google Scholar
Jansen, B., Lalleman, J., fit Muysken, P. (1981) The alternation hypothesis: Acquisition of Dutch word order by Turkish and Moroccan foreign workers. Language Learning 31: 315–36. [BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, L. (1988) Second language acquisition: A biolinguistic perspective. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S.O'Neil, fit W.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Johnson, J. S. (1988) Critical period effects on universal properties of language: The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Johnson, J. S., fit Newport, E. L. (1989) Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 21: 60–99. [HB, PL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. S., fit Newport, E. L. (1991) Critical period effects on universal properties of language: The status subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Cognition 39: 215–58. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juffs, A., fit Harrington, M. (1995) Parsing effects in L2 sentence processing: Subject and object asymmetries in Wh-extraction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17: 483–512. [MHar]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juffs, A., fit Harrington, M. (1996) Garden path sentences and error in L2 processing. Language learning 46(2): 283–326. [rSDE, MHar]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jusczyk, P. W. (1992) Developing phonological categories from the speech signal. In: Phonological development: Models, research, implications, ed. Ferguson, C. A., Menn, L. & Stoel-Gammon, C.. York Press. [SEC]Google Scholar
Kanno, K. (in press) The status of a non-parametrized principle in the L2 initial state. Language Acquisition. [KK]Google Scholar
Kaplan, T. (1993) The second language of functional categories: Complementizer phrases in English and Japanese. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Cornell University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992) Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. MIT Press. [JML, MASS]Google Scholar
Kayne, R. (1994) The antisymmetry of syntax. MIT Press. [aSDE, RT]Google Scholar
Keenan, E., fit Timberlake, A. (1988) Natural language motivations for extending categorial grammar. In: Categorial grammars and natural language structures, ed. Oehrle, R., Bach, E.Wheeler, fit D.. Reidel. [WOG]Google Scholar
Kenstowicz, M.Phonology in generative grammar. Blackwell. [MHal]Google Scholar
Kilborn, K., fit Ito, T. (1989) Sentence processing strategies in adult bilinguals. The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing, ed. MacWhinney, B.Bates, fit E.. Cambridge University Press. [SEC]Google Scholar
Kitahara, H. (1994) Target-alpha: A unified theory of movement and structure building. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Kitahara, H. (1995) Target-a: Deducing strict cyclicity from derivational economy. Linguistic Inquiry 26: 47–77. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Kitahara, H. (in press) Structure-building: Minimal procedures and legitimate steps [Linguistic Inquiry Monograph Series]. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Krashen, S. (1972) Language and the left hemisphere. University of California. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Krashen, S. (1985) The input hypothesis: Issues and Implications. Longman. [HB, MASS]Google Scholar
Krashen, S., Scarcella, R., fit Long, M. (1982) Child-adult differences in second language acquisition. Newbury House. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press. [MT]Google Scholar
Labov, W. (1972) Language in the inner city. University of Pennsylvania Press. [FJM]Google Scholar
Lakshmanan, U. (1993) Functional categories and non-thematic systems in child L2 grammars. Paper presented at Workshop on Recent Advances in Generative Approaches to Second Language workshop, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 01, Cambridge. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lasnik, H. (1981) Restricting the theory of transformations. In: Explanation in linguistics: The logical problem of language acquisition, ed. Homstein, N. & Lightfoot, D.. Longman. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lasnik, H. & Saito, M. (1984) On the nature of proper government. Linguistic Inquiry 15: 235–89. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lasnik, H. (1992) Move a: Conditions on its application and output. MIT Press. [aSDE, KK]Google Scholar
Lebeaux, D. (1988) Language acquisition and the form of the grammar. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. [HC]Google Scholar
Lee, K.-O. (1991) On the first language acquisition of relative clauses in Korean: The universal structure of Comp. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lefebvre, C. & Lumsden, J. (1989) Creole languages and linguistic theory. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 34(3): 249–72. [M D]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenneberg, E. (1967) Biological foundations of language. Wiley. [aSDE, DBic]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, L. (1993) Adult L2 accessibility to UG: An issue revisited. Paper presented at the Workshop on Recent Advances in Generative Approaches to Second Language, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 01, 1993. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Li, X. (in press) Adult L2 accessibility to UG: An issue revisited. In: Generative studies in second language acquistion, ed. Flynn, S., Martohardjono, G. & O'Neil, W.. Erlbaum. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Liceras, J. & Zobl, H. (1993) Functional categories and acquisition orders, with particular reference to the morpheme studies in English L2 and Spanish L2. Paper presented at the 13th Second Language Research Forum, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie-Mellon University, 03, 1993. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1991) Uniquely human: The evolution of speech, thought, and selfless behavior. Harvard University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
Lightfoot, D. (1989) The child's trigger experience: Degree-O Learnability. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(2): 321–34. [rSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lightfoot, D. (1995) Why UG needs a learning theory: Triggering verb movement. In: Clause structure and language change, ed. Bathe, A. & Roberts, I.. Oxford University Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Ling, C. & Marinov, M. (1993) Answering the connectionist challenge. Cognition 49: 267–90. [BM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lumsden, J. (in press) Language acquisition and creolization. In: Creolization, language change and language acquisition, ed. DeGraff, M.. MIT Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Lust, B. (1986) Introduction. In: Studies in the acquisition of anaphora: vol. 1. Defining the constraints, ed. Lust, B.. Reidel. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust, B. (1992) Functional projection of CP and phrase structure parameterization: An argument for the “strong continuity hypothesis.” Paper presented at the Conference on Syntactic Theory and First Language Acquisition: Crosslinguistic Perspectives, Cornell University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Lust, B., Chien, Y.-C. & Flynn, S. (1987). What children know: Methods for the study of first language acquisition. In: Studies in the acquisition of anaphora: vol. 2. Applying the constraints, ed. Lust, B.. Kluwer. [arSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1993) Is there a logical problem of language acquisition? In: Early cognition and the transition to language, ed. Smith, C.. University of Texas Press. [BM]Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1996a) Lexical connectionism. In: Models of language acquistion: Inductive and deductive approaches, ed. Breeder, P. & Murre, J. M. J.. MIT Press. [BM]Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1996b) Second language acquisition and the competition model. In: Second language acquisition, ed. Kroll, J. & De Groot, A.Erlbaum. [BM]Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B. & Bates, E. (1989), eds. The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing. Cambridge University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B. & Leinbach, J. (1991) Implementations are not conceptualizations: Revising the verb learning model. Cognition 29: 121–57. [BM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. J., Leinbach, J., Taraban, R. & McDonald, J. L. (1989) Language learning: Cues or roles? Journal of Memory and Language 28: 255–77. [BM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahajan, A. (1990) The A/A-bar distinction and movement theory. Doctoral dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [RMB]Google Scholar
Maratsos, M. (1974) How preschool children understand missing complement subjects. Child Development 45: 700–6. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, A., Wiggs, C. L., Ungerleider, L. G. & Haxby, J. V. (1995) Neural correlates of category-specific knowledge. Nature 379: 649–52. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martohardjono, G. (1991) Universal aspects in the acquisition of a second language. Paper presented at the 19th Boston University Conference on Language Development, 10, 1991. [aSDE, JML]Google Scholar
Martohardjono, G. (1992) Wh-movement in the acquisition of English as a second language. Paper presented at the Workshop on the Acquisition of Wh-Movement, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 04, 1992. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Martohardjono, G. (1993) W/i-movement in the acquisition of a second language: A crosslinguistic study of three languages with and without movement. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. [aSDE, RAS]Google Scholar
Martohardjono, G. (in press) Measuring competence in L2 acquisition: Some comment on Wh-movement studies. In: Generative studies in second language acquisiton, ed. Flynn, S., Martohardjono, G. & O'Neil, W.. Erlbaum. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Martohardjono, G. & Flynn, S. (1995) Is there an age factor for universal grammar? In: The age factor in second language acquistion, ed. Singleton, D. & Lengyel, Z.. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Martohardjono. G. & Gair, G. (1993) Apparent UG inaccessibility in second language acquisition: Misapplied principles or principled misapplications? In Confluence: Linguistics, L2 acquisition, and speech pathology, ed. Eckman, F.. Benjamins. [arSDE, LW]Google Scholar
McDaniels, D. & Cairns, H. (1990) The processing and acquisition of control structures by young children. In: Language processing and language acquisition, ed. Frazier, L. & de Villiers, J.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
McLaughlin, B. (1987) Theories of second-language learning. Edward Arnold. [DBir]Google Scholar
Meisel, J., ed. (1992), The acquisition of verb placement: Functional categories and V2 phenomena in language acquisition. Kluwer. [JA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meisel, J. (1991) Principles of universal grammar and strategies of language use: On some similarities and differences between first and second language acquisition. In: Point Counter/mint: Universal grammar in the second language ed. Eubank, L.. Benjamins. [SEC]Google Scholar
Meisel, J. (1994) Bilingual first language acquisition, ed. Meisel, J.. Benjamins. [HC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meisel, J. M., Clahsen, H. & Pienemann, M. (1981) On determining developmental stages in natural second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 3: 109–35. [BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mivagawa, S. (1993) Case, agr, and ga-no conversion in Japanese. In: Proceedings of the Third Conference on Japanese/Korean Linguistics, ed. Choi, S.. CSLI/University of Chicago Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Mufwene, S. (1996) Creole genesis: A population genetics perspective. Caribbean language issues: Old and new, ed. Christie, P.. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Munnich, E., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1991) Elicited imitation and grammaticality judgment tasks: What they measure and how they relate to each other. Paper presented at the First Biannual Conference of Applied Linguistics, Michigan State University, 10, 1991. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Munnich, E., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1994) Elicited imitation and grammaticality judgment tasks: What they measure and how they relate to each other. In: Research methodology in second language acquisition, ed. Cohen, A., Gass, S. & Tarone, E.. Erlbaum. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Muysken, P. (1981) Halfway between Quechua and Spanish: The case for relexification. In: Historicity and variation in Creole studies, ed. Highfield, A. & Valdman, A.. Karoma. [MD]Google Scholar
Newmeyer, F. (1983) Grammatical theory: Its limits and its possibilities. University of Chicago Press. [aSDE, FJM]Google Scholar
Newmeyer, F. & Weinberger, S. (1988) The ontogenesis of the field of second language learning research. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [FJM]Google Scholar
Nunez del Prado, Z., Foley, C. & Lust, B. (in press) The significance of CP to the pro-drop parameter: An experimental study comparing Spanish and English. To appear in: The Proceedings of the 25th Annual Child language Research Forum, ed. Clark, E.. CSLI/University of Chicago Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Obler, L. K. & Fein, D., eds. (1988) The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities. Gilford Press. [CPO]Google Scholar
O'Grady, W. (1996) Language acquisition without UG. Second Language Research 12(4): 374–94. [WOG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Grady, W. (in press) Syntactic development. University of Chicago Press. [WOC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ouhalla, J. (1993) Functional categories and parametric variation. Routledge. [JML]Google Scholar
Papp, S. (1966) The acquisition of Hungarian negative, wh-questions and focus by LI and L2 learners. Paper presented at the Third International Conference on the Structure of Hungarian, Amsterdam, 01, 1996. [AS]Google Scholar
Pateman, T. (1987) Language in mind and language in society. Oxford University Press. [FJM]Google Scholar
Penfield, W. (1953) A consideration of the neurophysiological mechanisms of speech and some educational consequences. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 82: 201–14. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penfield, W. & Roberts, L. (1959) Speech and brain mechanisms. Princeton University Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Piatclli-Palmariui, M. (1989) Evolution, selection, and cognition. From “learning” to parameter setting in biology and the study of language. Cognition 31: 1–44. [JML]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pienemann, M. (1980) The second language acquistion of immigrant children. In: Second language development, ed. Felix, S.. Narr. [BDS]Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (1994) The language instinct. Morrow. [JML]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinker, S. & Bloom, P. (1990) Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13: 707–84. [RB-V]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poeppel, D. & Wexler, K. (1993) The full competence hypothesis of clause structure in early German, language 69: 1–33. [aSDE, HC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radford, A. (1981) Transformational syntax. Cambridge University Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Radford, A. (1988) Transformational grammar. Cambridge University Press. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radford, A. (1990) Syntactic theory and the acquisition of English syntax. Blackwell. [aSDE, AV]Google Scholar
Handall, J. (1990) Catapults and pendulums: The mechanisms of language acquisition. Linguistics 28: 1381–1406. [SEC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Handall, J. (1992) The catapult hypothesis: Grammars as machines for unlearning. In: Theoretical issues in language acquisition, ed. Weissenbom, J., Goodluck, H. & Rocper, T.. Erlbaum. [HC]Google Scholar
Reinhart, T. (1979) The syntactic domain for semantic rules. In: Formal semantics and pragmatics, ed. Guenther, F. & Schmidt, S.. Reidel. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Reiss, C. & Hale, K. (1966) “The initial ranking of faithfulness constraints in UG” Submitted manuscript. Concordia University. Montreal. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Ritter, E. (1995) On the syntactic category of pronouns and agreement. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 13(3): 405–43. [JA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rizzi, L. (1993/1994). Some notes on linguistic theory and language development. Language Acquisition 3: 371–95. [JAJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, J. (1988) Pidgin Hawaiian: A sociohistorical study. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 10(1): 1–56. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, J. (1995) A sociohistoria! study of pidgin Hawaiian. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. 10: 1–56. [DBic]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, J. (1996) The role of diffusion in Creole genesis. Submitted manuscript. [DBic]Google Scholar
Robertson, D., Sorace, A. & Bard, E. G. (1995) The acquisition of native and stylistic inversion by German learners of English. Paper presented at the Conference on Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, New York, 05, 1995. [AS]Google Scholar
Roeper, T. (1992) From the initial state to V2: Acquisition principles in action. In: The acquisition of verb placement: Functional categories and V2 phenomena in language acquisition, eMeisel, d. J.. Kluwer. [JA]Google Scholar
Saito, M. (1985) Some asymmetries in Japanese and their theoretical implications. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [GG]Google Scholar
Saito, M. (1992) Long distance scrambling in Japanese. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 1: 69–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santorini, B. (1993) The rate of phrase structure change in the history of Yiddish. Language Variation and Change 5: 257–83. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sehachter, J. (1989) Testing a proposed universal. In: Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition, ed. Gass, S. & Sehachter, J.. Cambridge University Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Schlyter, S. (1993) The weaker language in bilingual Swedish-French children. In: Progression and regression in language, ed. Hyltenstam, K. & Viberg, A.. Cambridge University Press. [HC]Google Scholar
Schumann, J. (1982) Simplification, transfer, and relexification as aspects of pidginization and early second language acquisition. Language Learning 32(2): 337–66. [MD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1986) The epistemological status of second language acquisition. Second language Research 2: 120–59. [MASS, MT]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1990) Un-motivating the motivation for the fundamental difference hypothesis. In: Variability in second language acquisition, ed. Burmeister, H. & Rounds, P.. University of Oregon Press. [BDS]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1992) Testing between UG-based and problem solving models of L2A: Developmental sequence data. Language Acquisition 2: 1–19. [BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1993) Lexical and functional categories in L2a: A principled distinction for explaining “transfer”? Paper presented at Workshop on Recent Advances in Generative Approaches to Second Language, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. & Eubank, L. (1996) What is the L2 initial state? Second Language Research 2(1): 2–8. [BDS, rSDE]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. & Gubala-Ryzak, M. (1992) Learnability and grammar reorganization in L2A: Against negative evidence causing the unlearning of verb movement. Second Language Research 8: 1–38. [LW]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. & Sprouse, R. A. (1991) Word order and nominative case in nonnative language acquisition: A longitudinal study of (LI Turkish) German interlanguage. Paper presented at the First Biannual Conference on Applied Linguistics, Michigan State University, 10, 1991. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1994) Word order and nominative case in nonnative language acquisition: A longitudinal study of (LI Turkish) German interlanguage. In: Language acquisition studies in generative grammar, ed. Hoekstra, T. & Schwartz, B. D.. Benjamins. [BDS, AS, RAS, LW]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D. (1996) L2 cognitive states and the full transfer/full access model. Second Language Research 12(1): 34–66. [RMB, BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seebach, B. S., Intrator, N., Lieberman, P. & Cooper, L. N. (1994) A model of prenatal acquisition of speech parameters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 91: 7473–76. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sells, P. (1985) Lectures on contemporary syntactic theories. CSLI/University of Chicago Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Sharwood Smith, M. (1994) Second language acquisition: Theoretical foundations. Longman. [MASS]Google Scholar
Sherman, J. C. (1983) The acquisition of control in complement sentences: The role of structural and lexical factors. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Sherman, J. & Lust, B. (1993) Children are in control. Cognition 46: 1–51. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singler, J. (1993) African influence upon Afro-American language varieties: A consideration of socio-historical factors. In: Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties, ed. Mufwene, S.. University of Georgia Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slobin, D. (1973) Cognitive prerequisites for the development of grammar. In: Studies of child language development, ed. Ferguson, C. & Slobin, D.. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Slobin, D. (1977) Language change in childhood and in history. In: language learning and thought, ed. MacNamara, J.. Academic Press. [FJM]Google Scholar
Smith, N. & Tsimpli, I. M. (1995) The mind of a savant. Blackwell. [CPO]Google Scholar
Snow, C. & Hoefnagel-Hohle, M. (1978) The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. Child Development 49(4) 1114–28. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorace, A. (1992) Lexical conditions on syntactic knowledge: Auxiliary selection in native and non-native grammars of Italian. Doctoral dissertation, University of Edinburgh. [CPO]Google Scholar
Sorace, A. (1993a) Incomplete vs. divergent representations of unaceusativity in non-native grammars of Italian. Second Language Research 9: 22–47. [CPO, AS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorace, A. (1993b) Unaceusativity and auxiliary choice in non-native grammars of Italian and French: Asymmetries and predictable indeterminacy. French language Studies 3: 71–93. [CPO, AS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorace, A. (1993c) Scalar grammaticality for w/i-extractions. Paper presented at the Conference on Generative Approaches to Language Acquistion, Durham, 09, 1993. [AS, rSDE]Google Scholar
Sorace, A. (1995) Acquiring argument structures in a second language: The unaccusative/unergative distinction. In: The current state of interlanguage, ed. Eubank, L., Selinker, L. & Smith, M. Sharwood. Benjamins. [AS]Google Scholar
Speas, M. (1994) Null arguments in a theory of economy of projections. University of Massachusetts Occasional Papers 17: 179–208. [ AV]Google Scholar
Strozer, J. (1992) Non-native language acquisition from a principles and parameters perspective. In: Current studies in Spanish linguistics, ed. Campos, H. & Martnez-Gil, F.. Georgetown University Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Strozer, J. (1994) Language acquisition after puberty. Georgetown University Press. [RF, CPO]Google Scholar
Sylvain, S. (1936) Le Creole Haitien: Morphologie et syntaxe. Wetteren: Imprimerie de Meester. [MD]Google Scholar
Takahashi, D. (1993) Movement of w/i-phrases in Japanese. Natural language and Linguistic Theory 11: 655–78. [GG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takahashi, D. (1994) Minimality of movement. Doctoral dissertation. University of Connecticut. [GG]Google Scholar
Tavakolian, S. (1978) Children's comprehension of pronominal subjects and missing subjects in complicated sentences. In: Papers in the structure and development of child language: Occasional papers in linguistics 4, ed. Goodluck, H. & Solan, L.. GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Thomas, M. (1991a) Universal grammar and knowledge of reflexives in a second language. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, M. (1991b) Universal grammar and the interpretation of reflexives in a second language. Language 67: 211–39. [rSDE, LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, M. (1995) Medieval and modern views of universal grammar and the nature of second language learning. Modem Language Journal 79: 345–55. [MT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, M.(in preparation) Universal grammar and second language learning in western linguistic tradition. [MT]Google Scholar
Tomaselli, A. & Schwartz, B. (1990) Analyzing the acquisition of stages of negation in L2 German: Support for UG in adult SLA. Second language Research 6: 1–38. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Thomason, S. G. & Kaufman, T. (1993) Sources of Creole structures. In: Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties, ed. Mufwene, S.. Univesity of Georgia Press. [MD]Google Scholar
Tsimpli, I. T. & Rousseau, A. (1991) Parameter-resetting in L2? UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 3: 149–69. [JML]Google Scholar
Travis, L. (1984) Parameters and effects of word order variation. Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Uziel, S. (1993) Resetting UG parameters: Evidence from second language acquisition of subjaeency and the ECP. Second Language Acquisition 9(1): 49–83. [arSDE]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. & Young-Scholten, M. (1991) Verb raising in second language acquisition: The early stages. In: Theorie dcs Lexikons: Nr. 4. Universal grammar in second-language acquisition. The LEXLERN Project, Universität Düsseldorf. [aSDE, MHal]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1992) The development of functional projections in L2 syntax. Paper presented at the annual winter meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Philadelphia. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1993) X' Theory in L2 acquisition. Paper presented at the Workshop on Recent Advances in Generative Approaches to Second Language, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1994) Direct access to x'-theory: Evidence from Korean and Turkish adults learning German. In: Language acquisition studies in generative grammar, ed. Hoekstra, T. & Schwartz, B. D.. Benjamins. [HC, LE, KK, RAS, AV, LW]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1995) Tree growth and morphosyntactic triggers in adult SLA (IRCS Technical Report 95–20). University of Pennsylvania. [AV]Google Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1996a) Gradual development of L2 phrase structure. Second Language Research 12(1): 7–39. [RMB, AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vainikka, A. (1996b) The early stages in adult L2 syntax: Additional evidence from Romance speakers. Second Language Research 12: 7–39. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valian, V. (1989) Children's production of subjects: Competence, performance, and the null subject parameter. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development 28: 156–63. [HC]Google Scholar
Valian, V. (1990) Null subjects: A problem for parameter-setting models of language acquisition. Cognition 35: 105–22. [SEC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VanPatten, B. (1984) Learners’ comprehension of clitic pronouns: More evidence for a word order strategy. Hispanic Linguistics 1: 57–67. [SEC]Google Scholar
van Riemsdijk, H. & Williams, E. (1986) Introduction to the theory of grammar. MIT Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Verrips, M. & Weissenbom, J. (1992) Routes to verb placement in early German and French. In: The acquisition of verb placement, ed. Meisel, J.. Kluwer. [HC]Google Scholar
Watanabe, A. (1992) Wh-in situ, subjaceny, and chain formation (MIT Occasional Papers in Linguistics, vol. 2). MIT Press. [GG]Google Scholar
Wekker, H., ed. (1995) Creole languages and language acquisition. Mouton de Gruyter. [MD]Google Scholar
Weissenbom, J. (1992) Null subjects in early grammars: Implications for parameter-setting theories. In: Theoretical issues in language acquisition, ed. Weissenborn, J., Goodluck, H. & Roeper, T.. Erlbaum. [HC]Google Scholar
Werker, J. F. & Pegg, J. E. (1992) Infant speech perception and phonological acquisition. In: Phonological development: Models, research, implications, ed. Ferguson, L. Menn & Stoel-Gammon, C.. York Press. [SEC]Google Scholar
Wexler, K. (1994) Finiteness and head movement in early child grammar. Verb movement, ed. Lightfoot, D. & Homstein, N.. Cambridge. [AS, AV]Google Scholar
Whitaker, H. (1978) Bilingualism: A neurolinguistic perspective. In: Second language research: Issues and implications, ed. Ritchie, W.. Academic Press. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Whitaker, H. A., Bub, D. & Leventer, S. (1981) The neurolinguistic aspects of language acquisition and bilingualism. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 379: 59–74. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, L. (1985a) Is there a logical problem of second language acquisition? TESL Canada 2.2: 29–41. [aSDE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1985b) The pro-drop parameter in adult second language acquisition. Language learning 35: 47–62. [LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1988) Island effects in second language acquisition. In: Linguistic theory in second language acquisition, ed. Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W.. Kluwer. [aSDE]Google Scholar
White, L. (1989) Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Benjamins. [arSDE, RMB, HB, AS, MASS, LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1991) The verb-inovement parameter in second language acquistion. Language Acquisition 1: 337–60. [HB, LW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1992a) Universal grammar: Is it just a new name for an old problem? In: Language transfer in language learning, ed. Gass, S. & Selinker, L.. Benjamins. [RMB]Google Scholar
White, L. (1992b) Long and short verb movement in second language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 37: 273–86. [BDS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1992c) Subjaeency violations and empty categories in L2 acquisition. In: Island constraints, ed. Goodluck, H. & Rochemont, M.. Kluwer. [LW]Google Scholar
Whitman, J. (1991) String vacuous V to Comp. Paper presented at CLOW Colloquium. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Whitman, J., Lee, K. & Lust, B. (1991) Continuity of the principles of universal Grammar in first language acquisition: The issue of functional categories. In: Proceedings of NELS 21. GLSA/University of Massachusetts, Amherst. [aSDE]Google Scholar
Wijnen, F. (1994) Incremental acquisition of phrase structure: A longitudinal analysis of verb placement in Dutch child language. Paper presented at the NELS Conference (Workshop on Language Acquisition), University of Pennsylvania. [AV]Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical investigations. Macmillan. [MT]Google Scholar
Wode, H. (1991) Speech perception: A developmental perspective. Unpublished manuscript. Center for Bilingualism and Language Contact, Kiel University. [rSDE]Google Scholar
Wood, C. (1993) Categorial grammars. Routledge. [WOG]Google Scholar
Zobl, H. (1983) Contact-induced language change, leaner language and the potentials of a modified contrastive analysis. In: Second language acquisition studies, ed. Bailey, M., Long, M. & Beck, S.. Newhury House.Google Scholar